公司治理分數和公司業績之間的關系
Relationship Between Corporate Governance Score And Firm Performance

有限責任公司結構是大型企業最首選的結構。在這個結構,大量的投資者被稱為股東,他們被認為是該公司的所有者，提供風險資本。他們的權力是委托董事會管理公司。董事會代表相同的經理,同時保留其監視和控制行政管理中的作用。股東被視為本金和經理作為其代理人,這被描述為“委托代理關系”的關系。廣泛持有的公司的股東,幾乎沒有任何控制的經理。他們只是通知的財務業績在期刊的基礎上,同時經理控制公司的資產。這個結構提供了一個機會到經理剝奪股東的財富和挪用資金的轉移錢貸款給自己的公司,或公司的資產在一個較小的價格出售給自己或自己支付更多的額外津貼。所有者和管理者之間的利益分歧,由于所有權的分離控制,導致代理成本。

不僅僅是所有權和控制權的分離,產生了股東與管理者之間的代理問題,但也只是單純或擴散性質的企業所有權,它的特點是大量小股東。在這種所有制結構,沒有動力監控企業管理任何一個老板,因為個人所有者將承擔整個監控成本,然而,所有股東將享受福利。因此,代理問題的大小和性質都與所有權結構直接相關。

公司治理的基本理論依據是代理成本。公司治理的核心是設計和建立信息披露、監測、監督和糾正系統能夠使股東與管理者的目標盡可能實現,因此,減少代理成本。它對這樣的公司進行事務的處理,使所有的利益相關者覺得公平,計算其行動受益最大的利益相關者的數量。

Limited liability company structure is the most preferred structure for a large business. In this structure, a large number of investors provide the risk capital. They are called shareholders, the deemed owners of the company. They delegate the power to manage the company to board of directors. The board delegates the same to managers while retaining its role to monitor and control the executive management. Shareholders are viewed as the principal and the manager as their agents and this relationship is described as ‘principal-agent relationship’. The shareholders, of a widely held firm, practically do not have any control on the managers. They are only informed of the financial results on a periodical basis while the managers controls the firms’ assets. This structure provides an opportunity to the managers to expropriate shareholders’ wealth and misappropriate the funds by way of transfer of money as loans to his own companies, or sale of the company assets to themselves at a lesser price or pay themselves more perks. The divergence of interest between the owners and the managers, due to the separation of ownership from control, results in the agency costs.

It is not just separation of ownership and control that gives rise to the agency problem between shareholders and managers; but also the atomistic or diffused nature of corporate ownership, which is characterized by a large number of small shareholders. In such ownership structure, there is no incentive for any one owner to monitor corporate management, because the individual owner would bear the entire monitoring costs, yet all shareholders would enjoy the benefits. Thus, both the magnitude and nature of agency problems are directly related to ownership structures.

The fundamental theoretical basis of corporate governance is agency costs. The core of corporate governance is designing and putting in place disclosures, monitoring, oversight and corrective systems that can align the objectives of the shareholders and managers as closely as possible and hence, minimize agency costs. It deals with conducting the affairs of a company such that there is fairness to all stakeholders and that its actions benefit the greatest number of stakeholders.

There are two kinds of mechanisms to overcome the agency problem and hence, improve corporate governance viz., the internal control mechanisms and the external control mechanisms. Internal control mechanisms are internal to the functioning of a company and broadly consist of the board composition, the board size, the leadership structure and the managerial compensation. External control mechanisms are the mechanisms that are external to the functioning of the firm over which the firm has no control. An increasingly important external control mechanism affecting governance worldwide is the emergence of institutional investors as equity owners.

Although the role that the institutional investors can play in the corporate governance system of a company is a controversial question and a subject of continuing debate. While some believe that the institutional investors must interfere in the corporate governance system of a company, others believe that these investors have other investment objectives to follow. The group of observers who believe that institutional investors need not play a role in the corporate governance system of a company, argue that the investment objectives and the compensation system in the institutional investing companies often discourage their active participation in the corporate governance system of the companies. Institutional investors are answerable to their investors the way the companies (in which they have invested) are answerable to their shareholders. And the shareholders do invest their funds with the institutional investors expecting higher returns. The primary responsibility of the institutional investors is therefore to invest the

money of the investors in companies, which are expected to generate the maximum possible return rather than in companies with good corporate governance records. While the other group strongly believes that if the corporate governance system in the companies has to succeed then the institutional investors must play an active role in the entire process. By virtue of their large stockholdings, they have the opportunity, resources, and ability to monitor, discipline and influence managers, which can force them to focus more on corporate performance and less on self-serving behavior. Most of the reports on corporate governance have also emphasized the role that the institutional investors have to play in the entire system.

Given the increasing presence of institutional investors in financial markets, it is not surprising that they have become more active in their role as shareholders. Activism by institutional investors has been both private and public, with the public activism being most visible in many countries. The role of institutional investors is visualized in two perspectives, the corporate governance and the firm performance.

Objectives of Study——學習目標

In light of the above discussion, the present study attempts to achieve the following objectives:

To construct the corporate governance score

To establish relationship between institutional holdings and corporate

governance score

To establish relationship between institutional holdings and firm performance

To establish relationship between corporate governance score and

firm performance

In order to achieve the objectives stated above, the present study conceptualized the following null hypotheses for the validation of positive relationship between institutional holdings, corporate governance and firm performance

Hypotheses:——研究假設

H01: Institutional/its components Holdings and Corporate Governance score are

very closely related in a manner as to depict a positive relationship between

the two

H02: Corporate Governance Score and Institutional/its components Holdings are

also very closely related in a manner as to depict positive relationship

between the two

H03: Institutional/its components Holdings and various measures of firm

performance are very closely related in a manner as to depict

positive relationship between the two

H04: Corporate Governance Score and various measures of firm performance

are very closely related in a manner as to depict positive relationship between

the two

The Sample Design and Data:——樣本設計和數據

To achieve the above objectives, a sample of 200 companies has been taken. The present study is based on the secondary data. It covers a period of five financial years from 1st April 2004 to 31st March 2008. Institutional holdings are further segregated into three constituents. The mutual funds being the first one. The second constituent includes various public and private sector banks, all the developmental financial institutions (like IFCI, ICICI, IDBI, SFC) and insurance companies like the LIC, GIC, and their subsidiaries. The last constituent comprise of foreign institutional investors. Data has been collected on the institutional holdings in total as well as on different constituents of institutional holdings from nseindia.com. The secondary data regarding annual reports to construct the corporate governance score have been collected from respective company websites and sebiedifar.com. . The firm performance measures have been divided into two categories, one being the accounting measures while others are based on market returns. The accounting return measures include (%) return on networth, (%) return on capital employed, Profit After Tax, (%) Return on Assets, Net Profit Margin and Earning Per Share. Whereas, market return based measures include Tobin’s Q, (%) Risk Adjusted Excess Return and (%) Dividend Yield. Data for the study period on financial performance measures have been collected from Prowess Database.

Statistical Tools:——統計工具

Simple linear regression analysis has been used as a statistical tool to investigate the relationship between different variables. An attempt has been made to ascertain the causal effect of one variable upon another. Data has been assembled on the variables of interest and employed regression to estimate the quantitative effect of the causal variables upon the variable that they influence. The study also typically assesses the “statistical significance” at 5 percent level of the estimated relationships, that is, the degree of confidence that the true relationship is close to the estimated relationship.

Section A——第一部分

Construction of Corporate Governance Score——建設公司治理分數

Review of Literature——文獻綜述

Some researchers have used board characteristics as an effective measure of corporate governance as Hermalin and Weisbach (1998, 2003) have used board independence, Bhagat, Carey and Elson (1999) have used stock ownership of board members and Brickley, Coles and Jarrell (1997) have used the occupation of Chairman and CEO positions by the same or two different individuals. Whereas, Gompers, Ishii and Metrick (2003) have constructed a governance measure comprising of an equally weighted index of 24 corporate governance provisions compiled by the Investor Responsibility Research Center (IRRC), such as, poison pills, golden parachutes, classified boards, cumulative voting, and supermajority rules to approve mergers. Bebchuk, Cohen and Ferrell (BCF, 2004) created an “entrenchment index” comprising of six provisions – four provisions that limit Shareholder rights and two that make potential hostile takeovers more difficult. While the above noted studies use IRRC data, Brown and Caylor (2004) used Institutional Shareholder Services (ISS) data to create their governance index. This index considered 51corporate governance features encompassing eight corporate governance categories: audit, board of directors, charter/bylaws, director education, executive and director compensation, ownership, progressive practices, and state of incorporation.

In the present study, Corporate Governance Score has been developed on the basis of key characteristics of Standard and Poor’s Transparency and Disclosure Benchmark. Standard and Poor’s provides a range of corporate governance analyses and services, the crux of which is the Corporate Governance Score. Corporate Governance Scores are based on an assessment of the qualitative aspects of corporate governance practices of a company. Information has been collected on the attributes from the latest available annual reports of sample companies. The methodology, with 98 questions in three categories and 12 sub-categories, is designed to balance the conflicting requirements of the range of issues analyzed and the tractability of the analysis. Transparency and Disclosure is evaluated by searching company annual reports for the 98#p#分頁標題#e#

possible attributes broadly divided into the following three broad categories:

Ownership structure and investor rights (28 attributes)

Financial transparency and information disclosure (35 attributes)

Board and management structure and process (35 attributes)

Resume——摘要

Various researchers have considered alternate measures of corporate governance. Some of them have used single measure, while others have used the multiple measures in the form of indices. In the present study, Corporate Governance Score has been developed on the basis of key characteristics of Standard and Poor’s Transparency and Disclosure Benchmark because two broad instruments that reduce agency costs and hence improve corporate governance are financial and non-financial disclosures and independent oversight of management. Improving the quality of financial and non-financial disclosures not only ensures corporate transparency among a wide group of investors, analysts and the informed intelligentsia, but also persuades companies to minimize value-destroying deviant behavior. This is precisely why law insists that companies prepare their audited annual accounts, and that these be provided to all shareholders is deposited with the Registrar of Companies. This is also why a good deal of effort in global corporate governance reform has been directed to improve the quality and frequency of disclosures.

Section B——第二部分

Relationship between Institutional Holdings and Corporate Governance:——機構持股和公司治理之間的關系

Review of Literature——文獻綜述

Coombes and Watson (2000) on the basis of a survey of more than 200 institutional investors with investments across the world showed that governance is a significant factor in their investment decision. McCahery, Sautner and Starks (2009) have relied on the survey data to investigate governance preference of 118 institutional investors in U.S. and Netherlands. The study found that the majority of institutions that responded to the survey take into account firm governance in portfolio weighting decisions and are willing to engage in activities that can improve the governance of their portfolio firms. Chung, Firth, and Kim (2002) hypothesized that there will be less opportunistic earnings management in firms with more institutional investor ownership because the institutions will either put pressure on the firms to adopt better accounting policies. Hartzell and Starks (2003) provided empirical evidence suggesting institutional investors serve a monitoring role with regard to executive compensation contracts. One implication of these results, consistent with the theoretical literature regarding the role of the large shareholder, is that institutions have greater influence when they have larger proportional stakes in firms. .

Denis and Denis (1994) found no evidence to suggest that there is any relationship between institutional holdings and corporate governance. They stated that if companies that create shareholders' wealth are the ones with poor corporate governance practices, and then one really cannot blame the institutional investors for having invested in such companies. For, after all, a fund manager will be evaluated on the basis of stock returns he creates for the unit holders and not on the basis of the corporate governance records of the company he invests the money in. If however, one finds that companies with poor corporate governance practices are the ones, which have consistently destroyed shareholders' wealth, then the contention that the institutional investors need not look at corporate governance records cannot be justified. David and Kochhar (1996) provided empirical evidence regarding impact of institutional investors on firm behaviour and performance is mixed and that no definite conclusions can be drawn. They argued that various institutional obstacles, such as barriers stemming from business relationships, the regulatory environment and information processing limitations, might prevent institutional investors from effectively exercising their corporate governance function.#p#分頁標題#e#

Almazan, Hartzell and Starks (2003) provided evidence both theoretical and empirical that the monitoring influence of institutional investors on executive compensation can depend on the current or prospective business relation between the institution and the corporation. They concluded that the monitoring influence of institutions is associated more with potentially active institutions (investment companies and pension fund managers who would be less sensitive to pressure from corporate management due to lack of potential business relations) than with potentially passive institutions (banks and insurance companies who would be more pressure-sensitive). Davis and Kim (2006) found that mutual funds with conflicts of interest (based on management of pension assets) more often vote with management in general. On the other hand, mutual funds have more incentive and power to oppose management in firms in which they have a larger stake.

Marsh (1997) has argued that short-term performance measurement does work against the active monitoring by institutional investors. The performance of fund managers is evaluated over a shorter time period. Hence, they act under tremendous pressure to beat some index. So, when they find a case of bad governance, they find it economical to sell the stock rather than interfere in the functioning of the company and incur monitoring costs. Ashraf and Jayaman (2007) examined mutual funds’ trading behavior after the release of voting records. The study found that funds that support shareholder proposals reduce holdings after the release of voting records. Since the time of releasing voting records could be very far from the shareholder meeting date, mutual funds’ trading behavior after the release of voting records may be unrelated to the votes cast in the meeting. Aggarwal, Klapper and Wysocki (2003) found that U.S. mutual funds tend to invest greater amounts in countries with stronger shareholder rights and legal frameworks (controlling for the country’s economic development). In addition, within the countries, the mutual funds also discriminate on the basis of governance in that they allocate more of their assets to firms with better corporate governance structures.

Payne, Millar, and Glezen (1996) focussed on banks as one type of institutional investor that would be expected to have business relations with the firm’s in which they invest. They examined interlocking directorships and income-related relationships, and noticed that when such relations exist; banks tend to vote in favor of management anti-takeover amendment proposals. When such relations don’t exist, banks tend to vote against the management proposals. Brickley, Lease and Smith (1988) found evidence supporting the hypothesis that firms with greater holdings by pressure-sensitive shareholders (banks and insurance companies) have more proxy votes cast in favor of management’s recommendations. Moreover, firms with greater holdings by pressure-insensitive shareholders (pension funds and mutual funds) have more proxy votes against management’s recommendations. The authors differentiated between the different types of institutional investors, noting the difference between pressure-sensitive and pressure-insensitive institutional shareholders and arguing that pressure-sensitive institutions are more likely to “go along” with management decisions.#p#分頁標題#e#

Dahlquist et al. (2003) analyzed foreign ownership and firm characteristics for the Swedish market. The study found that foreigners have greater presence in large firms, firms paying low dividends and in firms with large cash holdings. Haw, Hu, Hwang and Wu (2004) found that firm level factors cause information asymmetry problems to FII. It found evidence that US investment is lower in firms where managers do not have effective control. Foreign investment in firms that appear to engage in more earnings management is lower in countries with poor information framework. Choe, Kho, Stulz (2005) found that US investors do indeed hold fewer shares in firms with ownership structures that are more conducive to expropriation by controlling insiders. In companies where insiders are dominating information access and availability to the shareholders will be limited. With less information, foreign investors face an adverse selection problem. So they under invest in such stocks. Leuz, Lins, and Warnock (2008) found that foreign institutional investors prefer to invest in firms with better governance practices.

In the present study, the analysis has been conducted in three perspectives:——在目前的研究中,已經在三個角度進行分析

Dynamics of institutional holdings and its composition

(2) Relationship between Institutional Holdings (explanatory variable)

and the Corporate Governance Score (dependent variable)

(3) Relationship between the Corporate Governance Score (explanatory variable)

and Institutional Holdings (dependent variable)

The major findings of the present study on the above aspects are summarized as under:

The results outputs of the first segment depict that the institutional investors have increased their proportional holdings in the companies over the years. The number of sampled companies with higher institutional holdings has increased where as the number of companies with lower proportions of institutional holdings has decreased over the study period. Hence, institutional holdings have shown an increasing trend of investment in the sampled companies over the study period. As far as the dynamics of components of institutional investors is concerned, no specific trend is observed in investments of mutual funds. On the other hand Banks, Financial Institutions and Insurance Companies have shown declining trends of investments over the same period. Where as, foreign institutional investors have shown the increasing trends of investments in line with institutional holdings.

The results outputs pertaining to the analysis of relationship between institutional holdings and corporate governance state that the larger proportions of institutional holdings have higher corporate governance scores in sampled companies and the smaller proportions of institutional holdings have lower governance scores in the sampled companies over the study period. Thus, very strong and positive relationship is established between institutional holdings and corporate governance. Hence, H01 is accepted. The results outputs of the section analyzing the relationship between corporate governance score and institutional holdings describe that the companies with higher governance scores have larger proportions of investments from institutional investors than the companies with lower governance scores. Therefore, very strong and positive relationship also exists between corporate governance score and institutional holdings. Hence, H02 is accepted. The inference can be drawn that institutional holdings pre-empts good corporate governance still at other times, good corporate governance endues institutional investment in the firm.#p#分頁標題#e#

The results outputs pertaining to the analysis of relationship between mutual funds and corporate governance reveal out that smaller proportions of mutual funds holdings have higher governance score in the sampled companies and larger proportions of mutual funds holdings have lower governance scores in the sampled companies over the study period. Therefore, weak relationship exists between mutual funds holdings and corporate governance score. Hence, H01 is rejected. Alternatively, the results outputs pertaining to the analysis of relationship between corporate governance and components of institutional holdings reveal out that the companies with lower governance scores have larger proportions of mutual funds holdings to the companies with higher governance scores over the study period. Hence, weak relationship also exists between corporate governance score and mutual funds holdings. Hence, H02 is rejected. It can be inferred from the above outcomes that mutual funds companies do not observe good governance practices in companies and simultaneously, good governed companies also do not attract higher mutual funds investments.

The results outputs as to the relationship between Banks, FIs and ICs and corporate governance depict that larger proportions of Banks, Financial Institutions and Insurance Companies holdings have higher governance score and smaller proportions of holdings have lower governance score in the sampled companies over the study period. Therefore, very strong and positive relationship is established between Banks, Financial Institutions and Insurance Companies holdings and corporate governance score. Hence, H01 is accepted. Similarly, the sampled companies with higher governance scores have larger proportions of Banks, FIs and ICs holdings to the companies with lower governance scores. Thus, very strong and positive relationship also exists between corporate governance score and Banks, FIs and ICs holdings. Hence, H02 is also accepted. The inference can be drawn on the basis of above results that Banks, FIs and ICs consider governance practices in companies while taking investment decision and alternatively, good governed companies also attract these investments.

The results outputs pertaining to the relationship between FII holdings and corporate governance reveal out that the companies in which FIIs have larger proportions of holdings have higher governance score to the companies in which FIIs have smaller proportions of holdings. Therefore, very strong and positive relationship is observed between FII holdings and corporate governance score. Hence, H01 is accepted. Likewise, the sampled companies with higher governance scores have also larger proportions of Foreign Institutional Investors holdings. Thus, very strong and positive relationship also exists between corporate governance score and FII holdings. Hence, H02 is accepted. It can be inferred on the basis of above result that foreign institutional investors prefer to invest in firms with better governance practices and their investment do improve the governance practices in the companies.#p#分頁標題#e#

Resume——摘要

The theoretical and empirical literature provides mixed evidence as to the relationship between institutional holdings and corporate governance. Some of the studies put forth the evidence that corporate governance is the significant factor for institutional investment decision and their significant investment improve the governance practices in companies, while the other studies state otherwise. Where as the research findings of the present study further validate, support and enrich the literature on positive association between institutional holdings and corporate governance.

Likewise, the studies provide inconclusive evidence as to the relationship between mutual funds holdings and corporate governance. But the findings of present study state that neither the mutual funds care about the governance practices of companies or their presence improve them. Similarly, the empirical literature provides indeterminate evidence on the relationship between Banks, FIs and ICs and corporate governance. But the findings of present study observe very strong and positive relationship between the two.

The empirical studies observe consistent results as to foreign institutional investors invest in better-governed companies but lacks evidence that their significant presence result in better governance. The findings of present study indicate that FIIs do not care for the corporate governance only, rather their higher stake ensure better governance too.

Section C——第三部分

Relationship between Institutional Holdings and Firm Performance:——機構持股與公司績效之間的關系

Review of Literature——文獻綜述

Pound (1988) explored the influence of institutional ownerships on firm performance and proposed three hypotheses on the relation between institutional shareholders and firm performance: efficient-monitoring hypothesis, conflict-of-interest hypothesis, and strategic-alignment hypothesis. The efficient-monitoring hypothesis says that institutional investors have greater expertise and can monitor management at lower cost than the small atomistic shareholders. Consequently, this argument predicts a positive relationship between institutional shareholding and firm performance. Holderness and Sheehan (1988) found that for a sample of 114 US firms controlled by a majority shareholder with more than 50% of shares, both Tobin’s Q and accounting profits are significantly lower for firms with individual majority owners than for firms with corporate majority owners. McConnell and Servaes (1990) found a strong positive relationship between the value of the firm and the fraction of shares held by institutional investors. They found that performance increases significantly with institutional ownership.

Majumdar and Nagarajan (1994) found that levels of institutional investment are positively related to the current performance levels of firms. However, a less-stronger, though positive, effect is established between changes in performance levels and changes in institutional ownership. The results are based on a study investigating U.S. institutional investors' investment strategy. Han and Suk (1998) found (for a sample of US firms) that stock returns are positively related to ownership by institutional investors, thus implying that these corporate owners are actively involved in the monitoring of incumbent management. Douma, Rejie and Kabir (2006) investigated the impact of foreign institutional investment on the performance of emerging market firms and found that there is positive effect of foreign ownership on firm performance. They also found impact of foreign investment on the business group affiliation of firms. Investor protection is poor in case of firms with controlling shareholders who have ability to expropriate assets. The block shareholders affect the value of the firm and influence the private benefits they receive from the firm. Companies with such shareholders find it expensive to raise external funds.#p#分頁標題#e#

Studies examining the relationship between institutional holdings and firm performance in different countries (mainly OECD countries) have produced mixed results. Chaganti and Damanpour (1991) and Lowenstein (1991) find little evidence that institutional ownership is correlated with firm performance. Seifert, Gonenc and Wright (2005) study does not find a consistent relationship across countries. They conclude that their inconsistent results may reflect the fact that the influence of institutional investors on firm performance is location specific. The above studies generally consider institutional investors as a monolithic group. However, Shleifer and Vishny’s (1986) as well as Pound’s (1988) theorizations and later empirical examinations by McConnell and Servaes (1990) suggest that shareholders are differentiable and pursue different agendas. Jensen and Merkling (1976) also show that equity ownerships by different groups have different effects on the firm performance. Agrawal and Knoeber (1996), Karpoff et al. (1996), Duggal and Miller (1999) and Faccio and Lasfer (2000) find no such significant relation between institutional holdings and firm performance.

In the present study, the analysis has been conducted in two perspectives:——在目前的研究中,已經在兩個方面進行分析

Institutional Holdings and Firm performance

(b) Constituents of institutional holdings and Firm performance

The major findings of the present study on the above aspects are summarized as under:

The results outputs of the first segment indicate that there is no conclusive evidence as to larger proportions of institutional holdings in sampled companies have higher average return on networth or average net profit margin and smaller proportions of institutional holdings in sampled companies have lower average return on networth or average net profit margin over the study period. To the contrary, strong and positive relationship is observed between institutional holdings and return on capital employed as well as institutional holdings and earning per share. As the average return on capital employed and average earning per share are higher in the sampled companies with higher proportions of institutional holdings and lower in the sampled companies with lower proportions of institutional holdings over the study period. Therefore, it is stated that institutional holdings and two accounting returns (return on capital employed and earning per share) are significantly correlated where as institutional holdings and other two accounting returns (return on networth and net profit margin) are not related. Hence, there is no clear evidence that institutional holdings and accounting returns are related.

Likewise, strong and positive relationship is observed between institutional holdings and Tobin’s q. But on the other hand, weak relationship is observed between institutional holdings and risk adjusted excess return. Therefore, institutional holdings and one market-based return are significantly correlated while the institutional holdings and another market-based return are not. Thus, the findings depict contradictory results as to the relationship between institutional holdings and market-based return too. In nutshell, strong and positive relationship has been observed between institutional holdings and only three (return on capital employed, earning per share and Tobin’s Q) out of six measures of financial performance. Hence, the results are mixed as to establish the relationship between institutional holdings and firm performance.#p#分頁標題#e#

The results outputs of the second section exhibit that there is no relationship between mutual funds holdings and none of the accounting or market-based return. Hence, mutual funds holdings and firm performance are not related at all. Results outputs pertaining to the analysis of relationship between Banks, FIs and ICs holdings and firm performance come out with the similar findings. There has not been found strong and positive relationship between the above holdings and any of the returns except for earning per share. The findings as to the relationship between FII holdings and firm performance are consistent with the other components as FII holdings do not observe strong and positive relation with none but one of the performance measures. Hence, there is no relation between components of institutional holdings and firm performance.

Resume——摘要

Various studies have focused on different aspects/levels of ownership and their effects on firm performance. Similarly, different performance measures have also been taken as some of them have considered accounting measures but others, stock market indicators. As a result, various arguments have been put forward both in support and against the notion of the effects of ownership structure on the firm performance. While some researchers denied the direct correlation between ownership structure and firms’ economic performance while the others argued that there exists such a relationship for certain. Amongst those who establish such causality, some provide evidence that there is a negative relationship, while others plead a positive relationship between the two.

The present study focused on shareholdings of institutional investors as whole and also of its different components. Various accounting returns and market-based returns performance measures have been considered. The findings of present study are indeterminate as to the relationship between institutional holdings and firm performance but strongly plead a negative relationship between constituents of institutional holdings and firm performance.

Relationship between Corporate Governance and Firm Performance:——公司治理和公司業績之間的關系

Review of Literature——文獻綜述

Lipton and Lorsch (1992) found that limiting board size improves firm performance because the benefits by larger boards of increased monitoring are outweighed by the poorer communication and decision-making of larger groups. Eisenberg et al. (1998) found negative correlation between board size and profitability when using sample of small and midsize Finnish firms, which suggests that board-size effects can exist even when there is less separation of ownership and control in these smaller firms. Vafeas (1999) found that the annual number of board meeting increases following share price declines and operating performance of firms improves following years of increased board meetings. This suggests meeting frequency is an important dimension of an effective board.#p#分頁標題#e#

Core, Holthausen and Larcker (1999) observed that CEO compensation is lower when the CEO and board chair positions are separate. It is further shown that firms are more valuable when the CEO and board chair positions are separate. Fich and Shivdasani (2004) based on Fortune 1000 firms, asserted that firms with director stock option plans have higher market to book ratios, higher profitability (as proxied by operating return on assets, return on sales and asset turnover), and they document a positive stock market reaction when firms announce stock option plans for their directors.

Gompers et al. (2003) examined the ways in which shareholder rights vary across firms. They constructed a ‘Governance Index’ to proxy for the level of shareholder rights in approximately 1500 large firms during the 1990s. They found that firms with stronger shareholder rights had higher firm value, higher profits, higher sales growth, lower capital expenditures, and made fewer corporate acquisitions.

Brown, Robinson and Caylor (2004) created a broad measure of corporate governance, Gov-Score. Gov-Score is related to operating performance, valuation, and shareholder payout for 2,327 firms, and found that better-governed firms are relatively more profitable, more valuable, and pay out more cash to their shareholders. All the eight categories underlying Gov-Score are most highly associated with firm performance. It is evidenced that good governance, as measured using executive and director compensation, is most highly associated with good performance. Bhagat and Bolton (2007) contributed to the literature as the consistent estimation of the relationship between corporate governance and performance, by taking into account the inter-relationships among corporate governance, corporate performance, corporate capital structure, and corporate ownership structure. The study found that better governance as measured by the GIM and BCF indices, stock ownership of board members, and CEO-Chair separation is significantly positively correlated with better contemporaneous and subsequent operating performance. Board independence is negatively correlated with contemporaneous and subsequent operating performance.

Klein (1998) studied whether the existence and staffing of board committees affects the firm performance. She found little evidence that monitoring committees-audit, compensation, and nominating committees, usually dominated by independent directors-affect performance, regardless of how they are staffed. Bhagat and Black (1997) undertook the first large sample study (957 large public US corporations), with long time-horizon (1983-95), of whether the proportion of independent or inside directors affect firm performance and found no consistent evidence that the proportion of independent directors affects future firm performance, across a wide variety of stock price and accounting measures of performance.

Dalton et al. (1998) showed that board composition had virtually no effect on firm performance, and that there was no relationship between leadership structure (CEO/Chairman) and firm performance. Ellstand and Johnson (1999) indicated that board composition-whether measured by proportion of inside directors, affiliated directors or interdependent directors-is unrelated to corporate financial performance. The results are invariant when moderated by firm size. Moreover, these results are invariant when moderated by the nature of performance indicators, that is, accounting returns (for e.g. return on equity, return on investment, return on assets) as compared to market returns (a series of measures all based on share value). Bhagat and Black (2002) found no linkage between the proportion of outsider directors and Tobin’s Q, return on assets, asset turnover and stock returns.#p#分頁標題#e#

In the present study, the analysis has been conducted in two perspectives:——在目前的研究中,在兩個角度進行了分析

i) Corporate Governance Score and accounting measures of firm performance

ii) Corporate Governance Score and market-based return measures of firm performance

The major findings of the present study on the above aspects are summarized as under:

The results outputs of first segment state that the sampled companies with lower governance scores have higher average return on networth and with higher governance scores have lower average return on networth in most of the years of study period. Hence, corporate governance score and return on networth are not correlated. Similarly, corporate governance score and net profit margin are also not related. Likewise, no relationship is evident between corporate governance score and earning per share. The average earning per share is higher in the sampled companies with lower governance scores and lower in the sampled companies with higher governance scores. To the contrary, strong and positive relationship is observed between corporate governance score and return on capital employed. The average return on capital employed is higher for the sampled companies with higher average corporate governance scores and lower for the sampled companies with lower average corporate governance scores over the study period. Similarly, the average profit after tax is also higher for the sample companies with higher average corporate governance scores and lower for the sample companies with lower average corporate governance scores. Hence, there also exists very strong and positive relationship between corporate governance score and profit after tax. The research findings observe the same strong and positive relationship between corporate governance score and return on assets as well. In nutshell, it is found that corporate governance score and three accounting return measures (return on capital employed, profit after tax and return on assets) are correlated whereas corporate governance scores and the other three accounting return measures (return on networth, net profit margin and earning per share) are not related. Thus, the findings are mixed as to establish the relationship between corporate governance scores and accounting return measures of firm performance.

The result outputs of the second section are rather more inconclusive as to the relationship between corporate governance and firm performance. Strong and positive relationship is observed between corporate governance score and Tobin’s q. Hence, the companies with greater governance scores have higher Tobin’s q and the companies with lower governance scores have lower Tobin’s Q. But on the other hand, weak relationship is observed between corporate governance score and dividend yield inferring that companies with higher governance scores do not always have higher dividend yield and the companies with lower governance scores do not always have lower dividend yield. No relationship has been observed between corporate governance score and risk adjusted excess return as well. The results outputs show that sampled companies with lower governance scores have higher risk adjusted risk return to the returns of sampled companies with lower governance scores. Thus corporate governance score and Tobin’s Q are related where as corporate governance score and dividend yield as well as risk adjusted excess return are not related. Hence, the findings of results outputs are mixed as to establish the relationship between corporate governance scores and market-based return measures of firm performance.#p#分頁標題#e#

Resume—— 摘要

The empirical studies have considered limited board size, frequent board meeting, independent board committees and CEO compensation as the proxies of corporate governance where as others constructed governance index or score comprising of comprehensive measures. Similarly, various measures of firm performance has been considered as proxied by Tobin’s q, market to book ratios, operating return on assets, return on sales and asset turnover, sales growth, accounting returns (for e.g. return on equity, return on investment, return on assets) and market returns (a series of measures all based on share value). The literature on the relationship between corporate governance and firm performance provide mixed and inconclusive evidence as some studies observed strong relationship between the two variables and the others lack that evidence.

The present study constructed corporate governance score on the basis of key characteristics of Standard and Poor’s Transparency and Disclosure Benchmark. Proxies for firm performance consist of accounting return and market-based return measures. The findings convey the mixed results as strong and positive relationship is observed between governance score and some of the accounting and market-based return measures (return on capital employed, profit after tax, return on assets and Tobin’s q) where as no relationship is observed between governance score and other measures (return on networth, net profit margin, earning per share, risk adjusted excess return and dividend yield). Hence, the results fail to achieve the objective of establishing relationship between corporate governance and firm performance.