英美概況（英國篇5:大英帝國的興衰 )

I. Whigs and Tories
輝格黨人和托利黨人
These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).
這兩個政黨名稱皆起源于1688年的光榮革命。
The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.
輝格黨人是指那些反對絕對王權，支持新教徒宗教自由權利的人。輝格黨人在19世紀中葉與持不同意見的托利黨人組盟組成自由黨。
The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.
英國dissertation網托利黨人是指那些支持世襲王權、不愿去除國王的人。托利黨是保守黨的前身。
I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century
18世紀末的農業革命
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the "open-field" system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:
18世紀末、19世紀初的農業革命期間，隨著《圈地法》的頒布，傳統的"開放田地"制結束。圈地運動持續了將近一個多世紀。農業圈地運動的利弊共存：
（1） Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;
由于大農場兼并了小農場，農場成為越來越在的生產單位；
（2） More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;
人們消費的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越來越多，飲食種類愈加豐富；
（3） Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;
圈地對佃家而言是場災難，他們被趕出土地，被迫到城鎮找工作。圈地運動導致了大規模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陸。
（4） A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.
農村關系中產生了新的階級對立。
II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)
工業革命（1780-1830）
1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
工業革命指的是17世紀末、18世紀初英國工業的機械化，以及因此而導致的社會結構和經濟結構的變化。
2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:
英國成為第一個工業化的國家，原因如下：
(1) Favorable geographical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;#p#分頁標題#e#
優越的地理位置：英國地理位置優越，適合參與歐洲與世界貿易；
(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industrialization.
政治局面穩定。17世紀后的英國社會寧靜，對海外貿易和殖民地興趣日增。國際貿易給商人和城市銀行家帶來財富，他們加上由于新農作法而發家的人們為工業化提供了大筆資金。
(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.
1688年光榮革命限制了君主的權力，這使得強大的經濟利益集團能對議會政策施加影響。
(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.
英國的主要城鎮皆靠近海港或河流，貨物運送便利。
(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.
英國許多河流不僅用于交通，還提供水力及蒸汽動力。英國還有可用的礦產資源。
(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.
英國工程師為訓練有素的手工藝人。
(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.
發明家受人尊重，他們解決了實際難題。
(8) Probably laissez faire and "Protestant work ethic" helped.
很可能利益于"放手干"及"新教工作道德"。
(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.
1707年后，英格蘭、蘇格蘭和威爾士形成關稅聯盟，1807年后愛爾蘭加入。因此，全國市場不再受陰于內部的關稅障礙。
(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.
圈地運動和其它農業改良為增加的人口提供了糧食，為工廠提供了勞動力，為工業提供了所需的一些原材料。
3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution
工業革命中一些重大創新
(1) John Kay's flying shuttle in 1733;
1733年，約翰凱的飛梭；
(2) James Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny in 1766;
1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮紡紗機；
(3) Richard Arkwright's waterframe in 1769;
1769年理查德阿克賴特的水力紡織機；
(4) Samuel Crompton's mule in 1779#p#分頁標題#e#
1779年塞繆爾克朗普頓的走綻紡紗機；
(5) Edmund Cartwright's power loom in 1784;
1784年愛德蒙卡特萊特發明的力織機；
(6) James Watt's steam engine in 1765.
1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽機。
4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution
工業革命的結果
（1） Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of the world";
英國成為了"世界工場"；
（2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation's wealth.
城鎮迅速興起，成為國家財富的源泉。
（3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.
機械化摧毀了不能投入其中的人們的生活。工人們在可怕的條件下勞動與生活。
（4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.
工業革命產生了工人階級，即無產階級。后來形成了工會制度。
III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)
憲章運動（1836-1848）
1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.
議會改革的原因
(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.
權力由貴族操縱。
(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.
城鎮和農村，北方和南方的代表權極不平等。
(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.
還有各種稱之為衰敗或口袋選區的選區。
2．Three Reform Bills
三個改革法案
Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.
1832年至1884年間通過了三個改革法案。
a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the "Greater Charter of 1832) abolished "rotten boroughs", and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant's, based on the value of their property.
1832年的《改革法案》（也稱為1832年的大憲章）廢除了"衰敗選區"；在新興城鎮中較為公平地重新分配了議席；以財產價值為基礎給予許多屋主和佃家。
b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.
1834年的新貧困法強迫窮人進工廠，而沒有給他們足夠的錢在自己的家里生存。
3．A People's Charter
人民憲章
There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men's Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People's Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament; (5)payment of members of Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.#p#分頁標題#e#
1832年的《改革法案》和《新貧困法》引起了普遍不滿。1836年，一群技術工人和小店主組成倫敦工廠聯盟。他們于1838年起草了有關政治要求的憲章（人民憲章），想把它呈送給議會。憲章有六點內容：（1）所有成年男子都有選舉權；（2）進行無記名投票；（3）平等選區；（4）議員選舉廢除財產資格要求；（5）議員應有報酬；（6）議會每年六月進行大選。
4．Results of the Chartist Movement
憲章運動的結果。
Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class still immature, without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was "the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement."
由于領導層的軟弱和分歧，由于缺少與工會的協調，憲章運動失敗了。當時的工人階級還未成熟，沒有正確的革命理論武裝的政黨領導。但是，憲章運動是第一次全國范圍的工人階級運動，引起了對許多嚴重問題的關注。在1858至1918年間，六項要求逐漸達到，盡管第六項從未成為現實。列寧說憲章運動是"第一個廣泛的、真正群眾參與的，有政治組織形式的無產階級革命運動。"
IV. Trade Unions and the Labour Party
工會和工黨
1. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave financial security.
1871年通過的《工會法》使工會合法化并給其財政保障。
2. The Labor Party had its origin in the Independent Labor Party(ILP), which was formed in January, 1893. In 1900, representatives of trade unions, the ILP, and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labor Representation Committee (LRC). The LRC changed its name to the Labor Party for the general election called for in 1906.
工黨起源于獨立工黨，于1893年1月成立。1900年，工會代表，獨立工黨和許多小型社會主義社團一起成立了工人代表委員會。1906年的大選迫使工人代表委員會及時更名為工黨。
V. Colonial Expansion
殖民擴張
1. The growth of dominions
自治領的興起
English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain's control of the seas, especially by the rising tide of emigration, British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, "on which the sun never set". It consisted of a vast number of protectorates, Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world's population and area. #p#分頁標題#e#
英國殖民擴張開始于1583年紐芬蘭的殖民化。在18世紀末、19世紀初，受到海外移民浪潮的鼓舞，英國殖民者很快加他們的擴張到加拿大、澳大利亞、新西蘭。到1900年英國已建立了"日不落"的大英帝國，包括受保護國、英國殖民地、勢力范圍和自治領，占世界人口與面積的25%。
Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the French. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.
1763年簽訂的《巴黎條約》將加拿大割讓給英國。1774年的《魁北克法》保證了法國的權益。之后，1791年《加拿娃哈哈》把加拿大分為上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英國人的定居地，后者是法國人的居住點。1867年《英國北美法案》確定加拿大為自治領。
English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing wer united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.
1788年英國人開始把囚犯流放到澳大利亞。1816年開始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亞。1851年至1892年的淘金熱使更多的人擁到澳洲。1901年，六個自治領統一為一個自治領-澳大利亞獨立聯邦。
New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved self-government in 1857, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in 1931.
1841年新西蘭. The Conquest of India
征服印度
The British East India Company established in 1600. By 1819 the British conquest of most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal army in 1857, the control of India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.
1600年英國東印度公司的建立是經濟滲透的實例。到1819年英國對印度的征服已基本完成。1857年東印度公司孟加拉軍隊的當地士兵發動兵變后，1858年印度改由英國君主統治。1877年維多利來女王正式成為印度女皇。
2. The Scramble for Africa
對非洲的掠奪
At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan.
19世紀初英國的占領地局限于西海岸的堡壘和奴隸交易點。整個19世紀歐洲人逐漸發現并殖民了非洲內陸。在這場瓜分競賽中英國占了較大的優勢。除了不斷擴張的南部和西部殖民地后，英國又凱覦東北的埃及和蘇丹。#p#分頁標題#e#
3. Aggression against China
侵略中國
In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.
1840年英國和中國發動了鴉片戰爭。從那時起，英國逐漸侵略了中國的許多沿海城市，并簽定了許多不平等條約。
VI. Twentieth Century
二十世紀
1. Britain and the First World War
英國和第一次世界大戰
The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs: "the Central power". Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the "Allies", Britain, France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.
第一次世界大戰是從1914年至1918年，戰爭主要在兩大歐洲集團間進行："同盟國"，包括德國和奧匈帝國，和"協約國"，包括英國、法國和俄羅斯。一戰中英國損失慘重。除了勞動力損失，還有巨大的經濟與社會瓦解。
2. Britain Between the Two World Wars
兩次世界大戰期間的英國
The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great depression.
1929年紐約股票交易所崩潰的影響迅速波及歐洲，到1931年英國進入經濟大蕭條。
3. Britain and the Second World War
英國與第二次世界大戰
As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939.
當阿道夫希特勒及納粹主義顯示他們對歐洲的侵略意圖時，首相張伯倫發現他的綏靖政策已站不住腳，只得于1939年9月3日對德宣戰。
4. Postwar Britain
戰后的英國
(1) One of the most far-reaching consequences of the War was that it hastened the end of Britain's empire.
二戰最為深遠的結果之一是加速了大英帝國的瓦解。
(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many people through television saw the ceremony.
1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成為伊莉莎白女王二世。新發明的電視使許多人看到了加冕儀式的過程。
(4) In January 1973, Britain became a full member of the European Economic Community which was still called the Common Market in 1973. Britain witnessed the first oil shock in 1973.
1973年1月，英國終于成為歐洲經濟共同體的正式成員國。1973年仍稱為共同市場。1973年英國經歷了第一次石油禁運。
(5) Mrs Thatcher
撒切爾主義
Thatcherism referred to the policies put forward by Margaret Thatcher, http://www.400190.com/dissertation_writing/sociology/2012/0301/1072.html the first woman prime minister in England in 1979. The main contents of her policies included the return to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy, and an emphasis on law and order. To some extent her program was successful and she led one of the most remarkable periods in the British economy.#p#分頁標題#e#
1979年撒切爾夫人成為英國第一任女首相。她提出的政策被為"撒切爾主義"。其內容包括國有工業私有化，采用貨幣主義政策以控制通貨膨脹，削弱工會的影響，加強市場因素在經濟中的作用，強調法律和秩序。在一定程度上講，她的計劃是成功的。她領導英國經濟度過了一段最繁華的時期之一。
成為獨立殖民地，1857年實現自治，1907年成為英皇屬下的自治領，1931年完全獨立。