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一般語言學與中國語言學綱要
Outline of General linguistics and Chinese linguistics For CSET Preparation Workshop
Dr. Tim Xie
留學生dissertation網California State University, Long Beach
This handout (.doc) and presentation (.pps) can be accessed at
http://learningchineseonline.net/teacher
Disclaimer
This outline was developed by CSULB faculty to provide some useful information
to the students who prepare for the CSET. It is by no means a guideline endorsed
by the National Evaluation Services or the Department of Education, California.
中文CSET 正式名稱和網站
California Subject Examinations for Teachers
CSET: MANDARIN TEST
http://www.cset.nesinc.com/CS_testguide_Mandarinopener.asp
中文CSET 在Credentialing 中的作用和地位
1. 通過CSET 證明：1. 具有中文聽說讀寫語言溝通能力；2. 具有一般語言
學、中國語言學、語言習得等基本知識；3.具有中國文學和文化的基本
知識。
2. 通過CSET 滿足credentialing 的一個必要條件
3. CSET 必須在教學實習以前通過。
中文 CSET 的三個 Subtest 和涉及的范圍
1. Mandarin Subtest I: General Linguistics; Linguistics of the Target Language
2. Mandarin Subtest II: Literary and Cultural Texts and Traditions; Cultural
Analysis and Comparisons
3. Mandarin Subtest III: Language and Communication: Listening Comprehension;
Language and Communication: Reading Comprehension; Language and
Communication: Written Expression; Language and Communication: Oral
Expression
中文CSET Mandarin Subtest I 題目的類型
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1. Multiple Choice
2. Essay question (description of concepts)
3. Rewriting sentences (pattern change and error correction)
4. Writing (socially appropriate discourse)
從 Sample Questions and Responses 看考題涉及范圍和答題技巧
I. General linguistics – genetic classification of languages (語言的譜系分類)
1. In the genetic classification of languages, languages are classified according to:
A. geographical relationships between language populations.
B. standard ordering of the basic units of speech (subject, verb, object).
C. shared development from an earlier common language.
D. overlapping semantic categories of words.
II. Linguistics of the target language – morphology, word formation, reduplication of adjective
（詞法，構詞，形容詞重疊）
2. Which of the following reduplications is correct?
A. 高高興興 [高高興興]
B. 美美麗麗 [美美麗麗]
C. 容容易易 [容容易易]
D. 基基本本 [基基本本]
III. Linguistics of the target language – grammar, function words （語法，虛詞，助詞
“了”）, particle LE#p#分頁標題#e#
3. A double le (了) [了] sentence structure such as 他睡覺睡了兩個鐘頭了 [他睡覺睡了兩
個鐘頭了] indicates an action that:
A. happened in the past.
B. is still continuing.
C. is going to happen.
D. was just completed.
IV. Linguistics of the target language – sociolinguistic differences, comparison between
Chinese and English （社會語言差別，英漢比較）
4. When expressing a time, a date, or an address in the Chinese language, the information is
generally ordered from:
A. the most essential information to the least essential information.
B. the least essential information to the most essential information.
C. larger units to smaller units.
D. smaller units to larger units.
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V. Linguistics of the target language – dialect difference, phonology （方言差異，語
音）
5. The Mandarin spoken by most southern dialect speakers is characterized by the speaker not
clearly distinguishing between:
A. aspirated and unaspirated initials.
B. dental and velar initials.
C. retroflex and nonretroflex initials.
D. labial and palatal initials.
VI. General linguistics – morphology （詞法）
6. Complete the exercise that follows.
The study of morphology is an important part of the study of language. Using your
knowledge of linguistics, write a response, in either Chinese or English, in which you:
• define morphology; and
• explain two central concepts of morphology (e.g., morpheme, affix, inflectional vs.
derivational morpheme, free vs. bound morpheme, root, stem, allomorph, back formation).
(Sample of Strong Response) Morphology is the study of the parts of words and how those
parts combine. One central concept of morphology is the difference between a bound and a
free morpheme; a bound morpheme cannot stand on its own, but a free morpheme can.
Another central concept of morphology is the idea of an affix. An affix is a bound morpheme
that gets attached to a word; it can be attached at the beginning or end of a root word. When it
is attached to the beginning of the word, it is called a prefix, and when it is attached to the
end of a word, it is called a suffix. The word unthinkable contains examples of free and
bound morphemes and of affixes. It has a free morpheme (think) and two bound morphemes
that are affixes (the prefix –un and the suffix –able).
VII. Linguistics of the target language – syntax, grammatical patterns （句法，句型）
7. Rewrite each sentence below, transforming it according to the directions given. Your
responses must be written in Chinese. Respond to either the version presented in Traditional
characters OR the version presented in Simplified characters. Do NOT respond to both
versions. The version in Traditional characters appears below. The version in Simplified#p#分頁標題#e#
characters appears on the next page.
A. Rewrite the sentence below using the passive voice. （被動式）
昨晚的雷劈斷了我前院的那棵大樹，倒下的樹砸壞了我的屋頂。=>
昨晚我的屋頂被前院雷劈斷的那棵大樹砸壞了。
B. Change the sentence below into a choice question form.（選擇疑問句）
他喜歡打籃球，不喜歡打棒球。=>
他喜歡打籃球還是打棒球？
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C. Rewrite the sentence below using a comparative form expressing difference of degree.
（比較）
中國人口有十二億，美國人口只有兩億五仟萬。=>
中國比美國多九億五千萬人口。
D. Combine the two sentences below into a single sentence that retains the original meaning.
(復合句1)
他想買一本中國點心食譜。在這個城的幾個書店都找不到。=>
（在）這個城市的好幾個書店都找不到他想買的中國點心食譜。
VIII. Linguistics of the target language – error analysis （錯誤分析）
8. Rewrite each sentence below, correcting all the errors and retaining the original meaning.
Your responses must be written in Chinese. Respond to either the version presented in
Traditional characters OR the version presented in Simplified characters. Do NOT respond to
both versions.
A. 他們打球已經打三個鐘頭了現在。
（到）現在他們打球已經打了三個鐘頭。
B. 我以為他聽不懂我說的中國話，是實他都聽懂了。
我以為他聽不懂我說的中國話，其實他都聽懂了。
C. 他向來不喜歡看芭蕾舞，就不喜歡看溜冰，現在還是不喜歡看。
他向來不喜歡看芭蕾舞，也不喜歡看溜冰，現在還是不喜歡看。
D. 我們說好了看七點鐘的電影本來，現在都七點半了，他就沒來。
本來我們說好了看七點鐘的電影，現在都七點半了，他還沒來。
IX. Linguistics of the target language – sociolinguistics, appropriateness, communicative
competence. （社會語言學，合適性，交際能力）
9. Use the information below to complete the exercise that follows.
Ms. Huang (黃) [黃], a worker in China, is planning to talk to her boss, Mr. Lu (陸) [陸],
about an assignment she has been given. Mr. Lu has asked Ms. Huang to be prepared to
discuss the progress she is making on the work. Write a response, in either Chinese or
English, in which you:
• identify the sociolinguistic factors (e.g., age, gender, status) that would influence a
conversation between Ms. Huang and Mr. Lu; and
• discuss how these factors would likely affect such a conversation.
(Sample of Strong Response)
1 在有的漢語語法書中“這個城的好幾個書店都找不到他想買的中國點心食譜”不算復合句。
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1) 首先，年紀輕和地位較低的人在交談中通常使用“您＂，以表示對年長的#p#分頁標題#e#
人和社會地位尊貴的人的尊重。黃女士對盧先生應該使用“您＂。
2) 其次，地位較低的人談話開始時，如果對方有職務，要依照職務稱呼對方，
以明確對方的較高社會地位。比如“張局長＂“李主任＂“王教授＂。這是
不成文但約定成俗的規矩。
3) 年紀輕和地位較低的人在談話中，一般態度十分恭敬謙虛。談話之前，通常
首先探試性地問：“您現在有時間嗎？＂ “我有問題想請教您。＂
“您看看我的設想……＂。而且用詞十分謹慎，比如用“請教＂不用“問＂。
4) 而相比之下，在工作地或許多社會交際場合，年長的人和社會地位尊貴的人
的口氣卻信心十足，口氣堅定，顯示出其尊貴的地位。在傳統的社會，比如
中國，即使是女性也要顯示出男性的氣質。
5) 在中國，尤其在中國大陸，從五十年代起，由於共產主義意識形態男女平等
和社會公平思想的影響，男女在社會地位上的差異變得不明顯。然而，儘管
性別的差異逐漸地在消失，社會地位的差異仍然存在著。由於傳統的影響，
在公衆生活中，男性比女性得到較高地位的機遇要大的多。
(下面的對話顯示盧先生和黃女士在年齡，社會地位和工作經驗上的差別。
黃女士 (Ms. Huang): 盧主任，您現在有時間嗎？ 您上個星期五交給我的任
務，我有問題想請教您。
盧先生 (Mr. Lu): 什麼問題？ 快說！還有五分鐘。我三點半有個會議要參
加。
黃女士: 您看看我的設想……
盧先生: 不行，我得走了。你先跟你們的組長談一下。明天上午十點，帶上設
計圖和樣品，和你們組長一起到我的辦公室來。
黃女士: 那…… 好吧。)
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Concepts and terms in General Linguistics and Chinese Linguistics
The Nature of language
Genetic classification – language families and branches
Study of languages –synchronic vs. diachronic
Phonetics and phonology
Organ of speech
Place and manner of articulation
Segmental and supra-segmental phonemes (Chinese tones)
Chinese syllable structure
Comparison of Chinese and English phonological systems
Pinyin (based on phonemic system) and Zhuyin (based on yinyunxue 音韻學,
initial and final 聲母與韻母)
Morphology
Morpheme - bound and free
Affixes – prefix, infix and suffix
Derivational and inflectional
Formation of words – derivation and compounding
Chinese characters and words
Chinese idioms – chengyu, yanyu and xiehouyu (成語、諺語、歇后語)
Script
The structure of characters
Six principles of writing 六書#p#分頁標題#e#
Change of styles
Simplified vs. traditional characters – history and methods of simplification
Syntax
Traditional sentence analysis – subject, object, attributive, adverbial, etc.
Structuralism and phrase structure rules
Tree diagram
Generative phrase structure rules
Transformational rules
Deep structure and surface structure
Grammatical characteristics of Chinese
Semantics
Semiotic triangle - concept, referent, symbol
-nyms – homonyms, synonym, antonym, hyponym
Semantic analysis, semantic features
Pragmatics
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Linguistic forms vs. functions – declarative, interrogative, imperative sentences vs.
making statements, asking, requesting and commanding
Locutionary vs. illocutionary meaning
Conversational implicature (contextualized meaning)
Performative vs constative utterance
Speech act
Cooperative Principles - Maxims of conversation – maxims of quantity, relevance,
manner and quality
Social aspects of language
Social varieties of a language – socio-economical class, gender, age, profession
Situational varieties of a language – formal and informal
Chinese dialects – geographical varieties
Euphemisms and taboos
Communicative competence
Language change
Historical change
Phonemic split and merge (Example of Chinese tonal system 平上去入 in classical
Chinese, 陰平、陽平、上聲、去聲 in modern Mandarin)
Borrowing (loan words) and etymology
Fist language acquisition and second language acquisition
Stages in child language acquisition, critical period hypothesis
Stages in second language acquisition
Difference between L1 and L2 acquisition
Language interference, interlanguage, transfer theory
Learning vs. acquisition
Input Hypothesis
Contrastive analysis and error analysis
Common errors for English speakers in learning Chinese (phonology, vocabulary,
grammar, use of language, etc.)
一般語言學參考書目
Ellis, Rod. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. New York , NY : Oxford
University Press.
Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman and Nina Hyams. (2003). An Introduction to
Language. Heinle.
Krashen, Stephen. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language
Acquisition. Prentice-Hall
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Wardhaugh, Ronald. (1993). Investigating Language: Central Problems in
Linguistics. Cambridge , MA : Blackwell Publishers
推薦網頁
Eugene E. Loos et al. ( 2004) Glossary of linguistic terms
http://www.sil.org/linguistics/glossaryOfLinguisticTerms/contents.htm
Krashen, Stephen. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language
Learning.
http://www.sdkrashen.com/SL_Acquisition_and_Learning/index.html
Linguistics 101: Introduction to linguistics#p#分頁標題#e#
http://www.ling.udel.edu/idsardi/101/
中國語言學參考書目
Norman, Jerry. 1988. Chinese. Cambridge University Press.
Ramsey, Robert. 1987. Languages in China. Princeton University Press.
Li, Charles N. and Sandra A. Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional
Reference Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Li, Dejin and Meizhen Cheng. 1988. A Practical Chinese Grammar for
Foreigners Beijing: Sinolingua. [李德津、程美珍《外國人實用漢語語法》北
京華語教學出版社1989 年出版]
胡裕樹主編《現代漢語》（增訂本），上海教育出版社1981 年第三版。
（或中國出版的其他高等院校現代漢語專業學生用課本
推薦網頁
現代漢語教案http://www2.gxnu.edu.cn/chinese/jpzy/show.htm
現代漢語.com http://www.yyxx.sdu.edu.cn/chinese/index.htm
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一般語言學General linguistics (including language acquisition) 包括的內容
1. The elements of language structure (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics)
and how they are interrelated.
2. Phonetics and phonology: Place and manner of articulation, IPA, phones, allophones,
phonemes.
3. Morphology: morphs, morphemes, affixes, prefixes, suffixes, infixes, derivation and
inflection, etc.
4. Syntax: the basic principles of grammar and what is meant by a productive rule of
language.
5. Who proposed the concept of deep structure and surface structure? What is generative
transformational grammar?
6. Draw a tree diagram for a sentence.
7. Explain how a surface structure is transformed from a deep structure. (Use passive
transformation as an example.)
8. The development of language and the significance of language change, including the
variations that occur within the contexts of time, place, age, gender, and situation.
9. How are languages classified into families and branches?
10. What is synchronic and diachronic study of languages?
11. Identify the different types of change that languages undergo at all levels (e.g.,
phonetic and phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical and semantic).
12. Analyze the mechanisms by which language change occurs (e.g., umlaut, phonemic
splits and mergers, borrowing, euphemisms, folk etymologies, metaphors, taboos).
13. What is pragmatics, discourse analysis, and the theory of speech acts?
14. How may sentences can be used to communicate more than they are literally said?
15. Analyze principles of structure, regularity, and coherence in extended texts.
16. Demonstrate an understanding of distinctions between different types (e.g., direct vs.
indirect) and varieties (e.g., commands, questions, assertions, exclamations) of speech
acts.
17. What are the functions of speech acts (e.g., to inform, to amuse, to control, to
persuade)?
18. Apply concepts of reference, sense, force, tone, and conversational implicature#p#分頁標題#e#
(contextualized meaning) to the analysis of speech acts.
19. What is the distinction between performative and constative utterances (speech that
constitutes an act vs. speech that describes facts or provides information).
20. In what sense is language acquisition different from language learning?
21. What are major differences between learning first and second languages?
22. Identify the developmental stages through which language learners acquire first and
second languages.
23. The cognitive, affective, and social factors that affect second-language acquisition
and learning (e.g., the concept of critical period, family and peer attitudes, linguistic
interference).
24. How are theories of language acquisition applied to facilitate language instruction and
learning?
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中國語言學Linguistics of the Target Language 包括的內容
1. 漢語聲母，韻母，音節與輔音母音的關係
2. 漢語輔音和母音的分類（發音部位和方法）
3. 中文拼音，拼音與實際發音的關係
4. 拼音與注音符號的關係
5. 漢語聲調的本質，變調，調類與調值
6. 漢語音節結構特點– 數量與結構
7. 漢字結構與六書
8. 漢字形態演變
9. 簡體字與繁體字，漢字簡化的歷史與方法
10. 漢語的字與詞
11. 構詞的方法– 詞綴（前綴、後綴、中綴），派生與合成，並列與偏正
12. 漢語句子成分分析方法：主、謂、賓、定、狀、補
13. 漢語句子的直接成份結構分析和樹狀圖
14. 語序，SVO, 主謂謂語句，主題與述題
15. 漢語同義詞，反義詞，同音詞
16. 熟語（成語、諺語與歇後語）
17. 漢語的歷史變化：古代漢語、文言、古音、音韻學、直音、反切、歷史語音變
化
18. 方言分化：地理方言和社會方言– 八大方言區以及方言的特點，大陸普通話和
留學生dissertation網臺灣國語的差異
19. 地理方言和社會方言與社會要素的關係（文化、政治、教育、性別與社會地位
與方言的關係）
20. 外國學生語言錯誤分析
21. 英漢語音、辭彙和語法的比較
22. 社會語言學問題– 語言使用與交際的合適性，語言的正式與非正式變體，社會
因素對語言使用的影響