美國會計專業dissertation

有幾個中小企業的定義,根據國際會計準則委員會的定義中小企業沒有“公眾問責”這意味著不公開市場交易的證券不屬于不是一個金融機構,不持有資產的受托人資格遠大集團的局外人是其主要業務之一。然而在國際財務報告準則沒有什么是“中小”的定義,但在接觸草案“IASB不會開發哪些實體的詳細指導方針應該或不應該對中小企業有資格使用IFRS。”國際會計準則委員會,2009年),進一步表明,每個管轄權應該開發哪些實體，指南將為中小企業使用IFRS提供說明。但是“中小企業”也會產生誤導,因為私人公司數十億英鎊的資產負債表不公開的責任會落入了本標準的范圍之內。此外根據歐盟中小企業的定義是它必須小于250名員工,年營業額不超過€5000萬和/或資產負債表不超過€8400萬。在美國這取決于企業類型，在英國是2006年公司法中有所規定(營業額測試中,資產負債表總測試和員工數量測試)。但是沒有一個普遍適用的定義。

本標準的目的是為了滿足非公眾問責的財務報告需要實體和外部用戶即銀行的財務報表而制定的,其中包括信用評級機構、潛在的債權人等。完整的國際財務報告準則旨在滿足股權投資者在公開資本市場公司,但不滿足用戶要求的財務報表的小公司,目前該準則更加關注評估短期現金流,償付能力和流動性。

There are several definitions of an SME, according to IASB the definition of an SME has no ‘public accountability’ which means securities that are not traded in the public market i.e. not a financial institution and does not holds assets in a fiduciary capacity for a broad group of outsiders as one of its primary businesses. However under IFRS there is no definition of what constitutes ‘small and medium’, but states in the exposure draft “The IASB will not develop detailed guidelines on which entities should or should not be eligible to use the IFRS for SMEs.” (IASB, 2009) and further states that each jurisdiction should develop guidelines on which entities will use the IFRS for SMEs. Therefore 'SME' can be misleading given that private companies with multi-billion pound balance sheets that are not publicly accountable would fall into the scope of this standard. Moreover a definition of SME according to EU is it must be less than 250 employees, has an annual turnover not exceeding €50 million and/or balance sheet not exceeding €84 million. In the US it depends on the type of industry and in the UK it is stated in the Companies Act 2006 (turnover test, balance sheet total test and number of employees test). However there is no one definition that is universally applied.

The objective of this standard is designed to meet the financial reporting needs of non public accountability entities and financial statements for external users i.e. banks, credit rating agencies, potential creditors etc. Full IFRSs is designed to meet the needs of equity investors in companies in public capital markets, but does not meet the requirements for users of the financial statement of small companies, but, rather are more focused on assessing shorter-term cash flows, solvency and liquidity.

Introducing the Exposure Draft, Sir David Tweedie, IASB Chairman, said:
“Our goal has been to produce a standard for use by smaller and unlisted companies that offers the comparability of full IFRSs... SME standard will make the accounting requirements more accessible to smaller preparers in both developed and emerging markets.” This will improve comparability and understandability of financial statements and consequently boost the investors’ confidence and improve the quality of reporting as compared to existing GAAP. (IASB, 2009)

Introducing this system will enable countries around the world ‘speaks the same language’ and achieve consistency of accounting standards. Furthermore ASB stated financial reporting in the UK will improve and will reduce the burden of interpreting and complying with accounting principles.

Brian Shearer, National Director of Financial Reporting at Grant Thornton and Chair of the ICAEW group monitoring the development of the new IFRS said: "The new standards mark a sea change in how private companies will prepare their accounts. They will greatly enhance the comparability of financial statements for private entities making them more valuable for those working internationally.” (Grant Thornton, 2009)

There are 3 tiers for this regime tier 1 is Full IFRS which are publically accountable i.e. listed and AIM companies including subsidiaries, tier 2 is IFRS for SMEs which is non-publically accountable entities and tier 3 is FRSSE which is small entities.

Under these proposals all entities will have the choice to adopt a higher tier e.g. Companies that reports under FRSSE can adopt the IFRS for SMES. Companies that use IFRS for SMEs will not able to say that they comply with full IFRS as IFRS for SMEs is a standalone standard which incorporates the principles laid down in the existing IFRS but which has been simplified. Disclosure beyond that required by the standard may then be needed to present a true and fair view.

“US companies with subsidiaries in the UK that do not qualify with small companies will need to prepare their subsidiaries’ statutory accounts using either full IFRS or IFRS for SMEs.” (PWC,209) the problems that companies may come across is that will the financial reporting system will be capable of multi GAAP reporting transferring from GAAP to full IFRS as IFRS for SMEs. Another problem that arises is what if the owner of a company is also managing it, will it have to comply with IFRS or will there be reduced disclosure?
In various jurisdictions there has been disagreement saying that a two-tier system of financial reporting subjects different entities to different accounting rules. Conversely practitioners have also expressed concerns about the undue cost in actually implementing the new standard.

The advantages of using IFRS for SMEs are the accounting rules is easier to read and understand, because of the simplified format and plain English used. There is low on going costs.
There will be one set of standards to follow enabling harmonisation of principles with overseas entities applying IFRS especially for foreign owned companies.
This will also facilitate investors and lenders to better compare financial performance of private entities and meet users’ needs. It will allow more access to capital.
It will also enable “One-stop shop” of accounting requirements which is only updated every 3 years
As it is smaller it will be quicker and cheaper to implement and the audit fees will be cheaper. Uniform education and training and auditing efficiencies.
The disadvantages of using IFRS for SMEs is there will be an initial conversion cost in applying the standards. It also may provide more information than private entities provide currently in comparison with UK GAAP. There can be as possibility that users might not consider or accept the standards and may in the short term request UK GAAP financial statements.
There may be tax, legal and financial implications differences that will influence the users’ decisions. In the short term users might need training and/or technical support on IFRS. Simplification does not necessary mean better. Not one size fits all. There will be a loss of sovereignty.

There are five simplifications to the full IFRS stated in the IFS of SMEs
• Topics omitted
• simpler option only included
• simplifications of recognition and measurement
• reductions in disclosures
• Redrafting in ‘plain English’
Examples of simpler options included are:
• Revaluation of PP&E and intangible assets (IAS 16 & 38).
• Borrowing costs (IAS 23).
• Various options for government grants (IAS 20).
• Financial instrument options e.g. available for sale and held to maturity.
Examples of simplified recognition and measurement are:
• Goodwill impairment: always amortise over useful economic life or 10 years, whichever is longest.
• Expense all research and development costs.
• Expense all borrowing costs.
• Only review PP&E if there is a change.

After so many consultations between IASB and ASB the question is whether the standard adopted in the UK will effectively replace the current UK GAAP for unlisted companies?

According to Ian Mackintosh “For a number of years, the board has stated that, in the medium term, there is no case for the use of two different accounting frameworks in the UK” (Christodoulou, M, 2009)

In contrast to this statement “Current proposals from the UK-based Accounting Standards Board (ASB) would see Irish and UK GAAP as we currently know it cease to exist by 2012 to be replaced by either full IFRS or IFRS for SMEs” (Irene O'Keeffe and Fiona Hackett, 2009)
Moreover Sobel Sharp, audit partner at Deloitte, she favours the new standard away from the “profusion and confusion” of UK GAAP, but believes the implementation date of 1 January, 2012 set by ASB is ambitious. (Sharp, I, 2009)

The ASB’s previous uncertain decision on UK convergence was to support a two-tier approach, where the lower level being based on IFRS for SMEs project.

Consequently, the decision to postpone any finalised decisions on convergence until feedback from the ITC has been analysed and discussed by the ASB and to see if a judgement can be made as to whether or not it is suitable for the needs of the UK and Republic of Ireland.

In conclusion the new standard is regarded as suitable for large private companies and perhaps medium-sized ones too. This transition would inevitably involve some cost and disruption, but the current stop: start process of convergence does not seem sustainable.
Our tentative view is that for the very smallest entities there are costs: benefit grounds for preserving the generally well-regarded FRSSE, albeit over time its provisions would no doubt become more closely aligned with the principles of IFRS

Whether this IFRS for SMEs will ultimately provide the solution to the accounting and financial reporting needs of the SMEs remains to be seen. But for now, the IFRS for SMEs is considered as a welcome development that will minimize the difficulties encountered by SMEs in complying with IFRS-based standards.

Promulgated the new accounting system are made up for the defects of the system of accounting.1998 for hospital accounting problems, our country began to implement a new "hospital accounting system", so as to effectively enhance the accuracy in the hospital accounting.In recent years, for the continuous improvement of the health care system in our country, past the hospital accounting system cannot meet the needs of the current hospital financial.Therefore, the ministry of finance in China in August 2009 for the hospital accounting system has carried on the revision again, for the extraction of fund, foreign investment, the interest to the problems such as fixed, while the new medical system than before the old medical system improved a lot, but the new medical system with the current trend of economic development gradually.The author through comparing the difference between the old and new accounting system of accounting, puts forward some points for the current hospital accounting system suggestion.

Under the old medical system of accounting has three disadvantages: one of the biggest disadvantages for lack of accounting, mainly for many programs to accounting.In the current under the background of the new economic environment and the health care reform, a lot of medical units are some unable to the budget of the project, this for hospital finance has become the biggest hole.The second weakness is the medical income without all calculation.Hospital for patients of medical units income is charge includes some important cooperation projects, such as medical research, the system of the past only for patients to the hospital income, but ignore other can bring on the accounting income.A third is fee income accrual system is not perfect, the hospital in arrears phenomenon occurring when there is no specific person to deal with the matter, led to a part of the bad debts and accounts in a mess, of course, other cases the accrual of asymmetry phenomenon also happen from time to tome.

The new accounting system is characterized by asset characteristics and confirm the standard is not clear.Fixed assets refers to the commodity production, productivity, and hold the whole operation and management, the service life of the most important thing is to asset.The second is the imperfect financial reporting system.Hospital use of funds and spending should have corresponding records, when the hospital staff need to use financial, should obtain the leadership approval to get to the bursar's office to get the need of the money.But in this respect, the new accounting system of the management system are imperfect.30 imperfect accounting subjects.Although new system of accounting subject system made some adjustments, but still need to add information assets and income of hospital.Especially on the classification of assets is not clear, leading to the accounting is not accurate.

A new system to adjust the scope of use, joined the grassroots medical institutions on separate establishment;Second, the specification of several payment business accounting, simple point said is added two lines of accounts, "zero balance account with credits" and "finance should be returned quotas" accounting subjects [1];Three is to establish the management of science and technology funds.In the old system, science and education funds is not included in the category of capital management, it is as a kind of special funds for the project management, is a no money on a regular basis.In accounting, because there is no joining technology capital management, hospital overall income will appear deviation, also can't reaction balance of the hospital;Four is the hospital cost accounting system be perfected.Hospital cost accounting system is a very old system is not sound, the narrow scope of accounting object, around the implementation of the standards are not unified, the hospital medical costs simply divided into two parts of medical expenditure and drug expenditure, caused the hospital cost accounting content is too little, lack of the unity of cost information and so on, which affect the hospital implementation of performance evaluation.5 it is follow the new health care reform.New system of medical income and drug income subject included medical subjects, combine the two became the medical cost of doing business, to avoid the smoke at random into drugs, put an end to the infinite expensive drug problems [2].Other improvements include the perfection of the hospital financial reporting system, accounting system and way of adjustment, accounting report format details, and so on and so forth.

The new hospital accounting system, although there are limitations, but the hospital does not change it, therefore, the hospital should be according to own situation, make specific processing methods.

The first on the content of accounting from the hospital after the definition of intangible assets effectively, clearly define the scope of the influence and avoid some of the cost of intangible assets play a, so as to understand the most use of intangible assets in accounting.Drugs should be differentiated with both internal and external, according to the ratio of both the classification of the self-check to clear the hospital actual income.

The second on the way of accounting, in order to meet the needs of hospital capital maximization, can choose in installment plan enter the way to cut spending large amount of hospital financial impact.Moreover, drug spending should have a clear business accounting, the settlement of that kind of situation should be based on the related regulations, and special circumstances special treatment.Process for the use of funds constitute a system of a complete set of use.Funds income and expenditure should have detailed records, and make relevant summary, analysis, thus to next year to fund accounting standards.

Hospital accounting system also attaches great importance to the hospital accountant course system reform, to maintain the integrity of accounting information, so as to accurately reflect the hospital economic activities.Classification of accounting subjects include the asset classes and unified, especially the basis of the hospital and a few detail course of engineering construction, to ensure that the hospital in this area of accounting should be more clear [3].Hospital income add subjects from different levels of subjects, such as adding transverse income in primary subjects, or in the secondary subjects increased health materials and so on are all in the current accounting system, accounting needs to be improved.

Innovation is based on the practice of a brave practice, continuously forge ahead, and positive spirit of transcending oneself strength, curiosity and interest, for example, the sensitivity of extraneous things and thirst for knowledge, and the constant pursuit of the truth attitude and so on, innovation is the driving force behind human progress.With the establishment and development of enterprise accounting information system, state of accounting work management concept, means, content and requirement for adaptability to change, the accounting regulations, accounting system, accounting standards also made a corresponding adjustment, which requires the accounting personnel in the face of new situation and new problems or frustrated and not discouraged, to have the courage to practice, enterprising and pioneering, innovative spirit to do a good job in a new era of accounting work.Here are combined with their own work practice to talk about this problem.

The so-called accounting management is to improve economic efficiency as the goal, with management funds as the object, explains the basic theory and basic method of accounting management of applied economics and management disciplines.Enterprise capital movement as the center content, capital raising, delivery, cost, income and distribution as the framework, the basic concept of financial management, management principle, theoretical issues such as management system, and forecast, decision-making, planning, control, analysis and other business methods.For most enterprises, the traditional accounting functions has been unable to adapt to the needs of the development of the enterprise should carry on the innovation of accounting management, so its connotation has changed accordingly.For an enterprise, the content of the accounting work is the most basic is generated, provide real and complete accounting information, to say the quality of accounting basis work level determines the standardization of accounting behavior and accounting information quality;But the level of accounting basis work not only affect the enterprise the internal organization of the operation, it will be the effective use of accounting information to users of accounting information directly impact on the legitimate rights and interests.Master all kinds of business method of financial management, learn to use financial management knowledge and skills for the operation strategy and management decision service.Through the study of this course is to master the basic theory of modern financial management, have the necessary financial management work in the economic management business knowledge and ability to work.

Modern management separated from traditional accounting system, with financial accounting tied for, mainly for enterprises to improve management, improve the economic assets of information systems.Formation and development of modern management accounting has experienced the execution management and decision-making management accounting of two stages.Perform management accounting began in the late 1920 s, its predecessor is cost accounting.Decision-making management accounting is based on modern management science, to adapt to the formation and development of the historical condition at that time.

Management accounting innovation.Decided to the development of management accounting information system improvement.Both ABC and ABM, ABB and comprehensive balance scorecard, radically break through the original management accounting relies on information system, pay more attention to the nature of the management accounting management, attaches great importance to the mining enterprise business information management connotation, from the perspective of accord with the application of management accounting to process information, so as to improve the management quality of accounting information.If just rely on the set of foreign financial accounting financial statements/report, for the purpose of disclosure of information system it is impossible to obtain the above result.Only for management accounting relies on information system effectively, form enterprise internal and external trading activity as the center of the three-dimensional information framework, to fundamentally solve the problem of the development of management accounting.In the three-dimensional information systems, each node is a enterprise control center, including heavy comprehensive financial accounting, management accounting analysis, the actuation to each other, complement each other.At present, our country enterprise in the use of management accounting techniques do not exist insurmountable obstacles, the key lies in how to make enterprises promote the creation of management accounting system and the use of management accounting information consciousness.As the innovation of the management accounting only the means of management accounting development, promote the development of the real should also is the inner strength comes from enterprise management.

Build dynamic accounting management system.The dynamic accounting management system is an important part of enterprise accounting management mode.Enterprises should be closely combined with the enterprise management and accounting work, different periods based on the traditional accounting management system on the basis of building a sound dynamic accounting management system.At the same time, further intensify dynamic execution of accounting management system, through the full implementation of dynamic enterprise accounting management system not only can rectify the shortcomings existing in the enterprise accounting work, and promptly take effective measures to promote the enterprise accounting work to carry out the scientific nature and rationality;Modern enterprise, on the other hand, the perfection of accounting management system is a perfect management system, and found that insufficient circulation management process, with the development of enterprise accounting management work, will be dynamic, moment to check the enterprise accounting work, promote the purpose of the accounting management system perfect.So, dynamic accounting management system is an integral part of enterprise accounting management model, to promote the scientific management of enterprise accounting plays an important positive role.

The thought of sustainable development.When the global energy problem is more and more prominent, the development of all enterprises have to base on the strategic goal of sustainable development, sustainable development refers to not at the expense of the interests of future generations to meet the needs of modern people.The concept of sustainable development, highlight the value of wealth with the interests of the overall.In modern economic system, the competitive environment faced by firms and gradually, enterprise decision-makers will draw the lessons of the past, carefully understand the sustainable development thought in the modern accounting management, using the principle of decision-making process, makes the enterprise towards the goal of sustainable development.

In short, corporate governance and management accounting there is important relationship between each other.The strengthening of internal governance and external governance of rationalization led to a huge demand for management accounting information.Demand for management accounting information in corporate governance to promote enterprise financial workers and researchers continue to improve and innovation of management accounting, and management accounting continues to update and change, very beneficial to improve corporate governance, thus forming a cycle system and restrict each other.To carry out the corporate governance can not only consider the portion of the information provided by the accounting information system should also focus on considering the management accounting information system can provide relevant information.The above two combine each other, is the only thing that will be conducive to further improve the corporate governance.