(A) the evolution of the basic rules of trade protectionism

（一）貿易保護主義演進的基本規律

Since the international market since the formation of the world's trade policy can be divided into two distinct categories: free trade policy and protection of trade policies. Development of international trade along the track all the way to find, we can see that free trade policy and trade policy protection go hand always. From the perspective of the global economy, when the world economy on an upward track, when free trade prevailed, when the world economy is in a downward track time, especially in the stage of entering a state of crisis, to protect trade in power. From the national point of view, when increasing a country's international competitiveness, it is often the defenders of free trade, when a country's international competitiveness deteriorated, it will be transformed into the vanguard of trade protection. In a country, for a strong industry, government tend to implement free trade policies, while at the same time, for the weak industries, governments often tend to protectionism. World economic development today, no matter what stage, which country, which industry, trade protection, the characterization of no exceptions. Thus, there is no hard and fast free trade and protection of trade, only immutable national interests.

自國際市場形成以來，世界各國的貿易政策就分為截然不同的兩大類：自由貿易政策和保護貿易政策。沿著國際貿易發展的軌跡一路尋來，我們可以發現，自由貿易政策和保護貿易政策始終是形影相隨的。從全球經濟的角度看，當世界經濟處于上行軌道的時候，自由貿易盛行，當世界經濟處于下行軌道的時候，特別是進入危機狀態的階段，保護貿易當道。從國家的角度看，當一國國際競爭力與日俱增時，它往往是自由貿易的捍衛者，當一國國際競爭力每況愈下時，它會轉變成保護貿易的急先鋒。

(Two) the main features of trade protectionism

（二）貿易保護主義的主要特征

The process of developing international trade shows trade protectionism has two prominent features: on the one hand, trade protectionism with the world economic development and constantly changing its ways and means; the other hand, trade protectionism in the regional and global freedom trade framework has been effectively controlled.

國際貿易發展的進程顯示貿易保護主義有兩方面突出特征：一方面，貿易保護主義隨世界經濟發展而不斷變換著它的方式和手段；另一方面，貿易保護主義在區域性和全球性的自由貿易框架下得到了有效的控制。

First, trade protectionism means endless. Under the framework of the WTO, to protect the international trade fair, orderly and sustainable development, WTO allows members to take trade remedy measures, technical trade measures and environmental trade measures. However, once these legitimate trade measures are overused, they become trade protection measures. Among them, including anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard measures, including trade remedy measures have established rules and procedures, is remarkable in the traditional trade protection measures, while including technical regulations and standards and conformity assessment procedures, including technical trade measures, and including environmental technical regulations and standards, product inspection and quarantine system and measures, green packaging and labeling requirements, including environmental trade measures, is more flexible, subtle, members of the party can be continuously changing economic and technological development trend, continuing to adopt technical and the environment, new initiatives, new standards, thus effectively blocking his country's products outside the gates. This dynamic change and widespread technological and environmental trade measures are called new trade protectionism, they gradually become the mainstream of the current international trade protectionism. WTO operation since the direction of WTO members informed of new means of trade protection has affected 80% of global trade.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Second, trade protectionism, free trade is subject to the constraints of the framework. Since the end of World War II, free trade is the contemporary dominant force in international trade policy. In the multilateral field, with the end of 2011, Russia's accession to WTO, more than 98% of the global coverage of international trade under the multilateral framework of the WTO. At the same time, the world set off another round of symbiosis with the multilateral framework of regional free trade agreements. According to WTO statistics, as of 2010, the global effect of nearly 300 regional trade agreements, the average WTO members to participate in a regional agreement for up to 13. Whether regional group members or members of the multilateral trading system, the world's economies are strictly necessary for regional and multilateral institutional commitment to regional and multilateral institutions to comply with the free trade rules. The further development of regional economic groupings and the multilateral trading system continues to expand into an international system of protection of trade liberalization.

 

Post-crisis development trend of trade protectionism

 

(A) the development of new trade protectionism

 

Based on the evolution of trade protectionism and features of the basic law judge, after the crisis, trade protectionism due to the slump in the world economy and if shrouded in clouds like the world market in the global economy, regional and national economies into recession sometimes sharply increased the edge of recession, it will as the world economic, technological and environmental development and innovation, the global economic recovery and the consequent upward jolt uncertain, faltering.

 

Post-crisis period highlight new developments in trade protectionism reflected in three aspects.

 

First, trade protectionism and climate issues are closely linked. The past two years, the global response to the challenge of climate warming process, the developed countries have found a new class seems to be more protectionist tool for very good reason, it is the name of a low-carbon sorts of pretexts, the implementation of trade protection. Carbon tariffs and carbon labeling is that such means of protection representative.

The so-called carbon tariffs, is a country on imported products at the import stage their carbon emissions levy taxes and other border adjustment measures, due to the increased cost of imported products, which acts as tariffs. 2012 since the implementation of the EU aviation carbon tariffs carbon regulation is representative. Despite being the world's countries to boycott the EU has not only not ready to close hand, but also the desire to control the carbon from the air extended to the navigation. It is estimated that the world's airlines will vary and the new EU carbon control cost € 2.4 billion, profit fell 78%. Chinese airlines will be additional losses in 2012 only 800 million yuan in 2020, this loss will exceed 30 billion yuan. Obviously, through a carbon tax, the EU will not only change the distribution of costs and benefits of the global economy, combating trade partner countries, but also for the debt-ridden that they have gained a high income.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

The so-called carbon labeling, refers to the production process, the carbon footprint (ie, emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases amount) on product labels marked quantified in the form of labels to inform consumers of the product carbon information. Using carbon labeling is becoming a global trend, Japan, Britain, France, USA, Sweden, Canada, South Korea, Australia and other countries have more and more involved and achieved some success. ISO is actively developing product carbon footprint standard ISO14067, has now completed the preparation of the draft. "Carbon footprint" certification of international standards, once introduced, will account for product lifecycle carbon emissions within the scope of international standardized, worldwide implementation of product certification and filling carbon carbon labeling will be inevitable. As low level of production technology in developing countries, tend to have a higher carbon footprint, carbon labeling become an obstacle to effective means of developing country exports. Moreover, carbon labeling the implementation of a series of measures implemented, will change the layout of global trade and investment. In international trade, Asian countries and regions, though they have low-cost advantage, but the ocean transportation of spent carbon emissions is difficult to ignore, "carbon footprint" high. Thus, once the "carbon label" became mandatory system, Mexico, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe and even North Africa and Europe and these regions will regain close locational advantages, which accumulate in the Asian investment and manufacturing chain may be transferred only to these areas, there may even return to Europe and the United States.

 

Secondly, the growing trade protectionism within the boundaries extend. Under the framework of the WTO, along with the traditional border measures such as tariffs decline in effectiveness, the developed members of the party have succeeded in the field of international trade rules from the trade itself extended to trade-related technical standards, environmental standards and investment measures. Since the new century, in the developed members of the party, driven by international trade rules are trying to break the original region into a growing number of related areas, including labor standards, economic security, social security, poverty and even diplomatic relations and geopolitics, showing a wide coverage of trade rules and versatile features. With the wide coverage of trade rules and multifunction development, trade protectionism in developed countries beyond the traditional boundaries of trade measures, the steady expansion of the policy areas within the boundaries of the developing countries of the domestic policy areas, including intellectual property rights, government procurement , innovation, enterprise reform, competition policy, deregulation, and so on, and the developed countries due to differences in trade frictions and trade is increasingly becoming the focus of the dispute, trade protectionism is focused and trying to change the system within the developing countries and policy framework measures to autonomous decision-making and development of developing countries to form a new challenge.#p#分頁標題#e#

 

Competitive neutrality principles and the terms of trade protection is extended to the boundary typical. Since 2011, the United States began intensively implemented in the field of international trade competition neutral concept, intended to thereby form a new trade rules. The so-called competition neutral, that competition is not affected by the interference of external factors, so that state-owned enterprises and private enterprises compete fairly in the same starting line. The United States is with other OECD member countries and the OECD Secretariat for the Chinese state-owned enterprises to formulate "competitive neutrality framework." It is reported that part of the drafting of the framework is almost complete. In the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP) among competitive neutrality principles have been translated into specific terms of the agreement state-owned enterprises. In the world's major economies, only China has a strong state-owned enterprises, and promote the principle of competitive neutrality and its terms, is clearly intended by the international rule-making and implementation of state repression and economic change in China.

 

Finally, regional trade agreements protectionist more dense. Regional economic development group on the role and impact of trade liberalization has been highly controversial. Mainstream view is that regional trade agreements within the region members to reduce trade barriers, is a part of global free trade. However, in recent years, regional trade agreements exclusion among the changes in the world situation has become particularly noticeable turbulence. Regional trade agreements include not only trade policy, and increasingly include investment policy, and continue with the labor standards, competition policy and even social policy linked not only geographically regional alliances concluded between the neighboring countries, but also between countries across the region have also signed regional agreements. By negotiating and signing regional trade agreements to consolidate and expand economic and trade interests in all areas, to become the world in the post-crisis strategic tool to improve competitiveness, while through the terms of the agreement extends to countries internal policies, exclusion and repression in countries outside the agreement, but also This strategy is increasingly becoming a means of question of meaning. U.S. backdoor Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP) to return to Asia, not only in order to effectively stabilize and strengthen U.S. trade and economic interests in the Asia Pacific and space, but also to precisely suppress and counterbalance China in the region's growth and development.

 

(Two) new trade protectionism will not fundamentally shaken liberalization http://ukthesis.org/jr

 

International experience shows that despite the economic crisis and recession will exacerbate trade protectionism, even though trade protectionism in the new stage of development in a new guise and depth extensions, but does not fundamentally shaken the world economy and international trade liberalization. On the contrary, the history of World War II than in the period before the post-war establishment and development of the free trade framework for protectionist tendencies in the formation of national institutional constraints force. This arrangement not only effectively halted after the outbreak of the crisis the global proliferation of trade protectionism, and will continue to effectively curb the post-crisis global economic turmoil could jeopardize serious trade conflicts.#p#分頁標題#e#