摘要

由于國產企業日益強大，加上跨國公司的加入，中國的消費者市場的競爭日益激烈。對許多企業來說，繼續發展的唯一選擇就只剩國際化運營這一條了。這種情況同樣發生在大型家用電器制造商海爾公司上。在中國本土，海爾已經取得了成功，并且在大型家用電器市場擁有很大一部分的份額，現在他們開始在國外市場尋找新的機遇。海爾國際化的中心目標是美國市場，他們希望在美國市場把自己打造成為頂尖的大型家用電器制造商。一開始，海爾公司在定制產品上取得了成功，由于缺乏經驗和品牌的認知度，加上美國本地市場強大的競爭者，當海爾開始嘗試像主流市場擴大產品供應時，他們遇到了巨大的挑戰。如果海爾公司想實現他們在美國建立優質產品品牌這一目標，他們則必須要開發獲取核心技術，與已經在美國建立的主流產品進行激烈的競爭。

在過去的二十年里，中國經歷了從經濟停滯到世界經濟強國的巨大轉變。中國政府的充分治理，廉價的勞動力，國際貿易形式與政策的改革，一系列的措施使得出口企業繁榮發達起來，也使得中國成為了世界性的廉價供應商。

摘要—— Abstract

The consumer market place in China has become progressively more competitive due to increasingly powerful domestic firms and also the entry of foreign multinationals. For many firms, the internationalization of their operations remains the only option for continued growth. Such is the case of Haier, the white goods manufacturer. Haier has achieved success and a large market share in the domestic Chinese market for white goods and seeking new opportunities, has moved abroad into new markets. Central to Haier's internationalization is the American market, where they hope to establish themselves as a top manufacturer in white goods. Initially having success with niche products, as Haier attempts to expand its product offerings to mainstream segments they are running into significant challenges posed by their inexperience, lack of brand recognition, and strong established competitors in the American market. If Haier wants to realize their goal of establishing a brand in America based on quality of product they must develop or acquire key skills and move to compete aggressively with the established manufacturers in the mainstream product segments.

引言—— Introduction

For the past two decades China has undergone a transformation from economic stagnation to global economic power. Harnessing abundant, low cost labour and pro-international trade reforms and policies promoted by the Chinese government, export oriented firms have flourished and have transformed China into the world low-cost supplier. While China represents the world's largest consumer market and is continuing to grow and develop, the Chinese market is becoming increasingly competitive. Domestic firms are cutting prices and large multinationals are entering the market with their superior technology and established global brands to take advantage of the large consumer market, low costs of labour and sourcing of materials. As the domestic Chinese market becomes increasingly saturated and competitive, large powerful Chinese firms will look abroad for new markets and opportunities to internationalize operations (Accenture 2007).

One of the companies at the forefront of the movement into international markets is the Haier Group. Haier, founded in 1984 as the Quingdao Refrigerator Factory, has transformed itself into the world's 4th largest white goods manufacturer by sales and one of China's most respected and recognized international brands. (McLannahan 2009). When current CEO Zhang Ruimin took over the near bankrupt refrigerator factory in 1984, the company had one refrigerator model and was plagued by inefficiencies and shoddy workmanship (Haier Group). After assuming control of the failing company Zhang instituted a commitment to quality, discipline and worker accountability. In a symbolic act of pulling 76 defective refrigerators off the production line and personally destroying one with a hammer Zhang initiated the catalyst that would see Haier rise to the forefront of the white goods industry (Haier 4).

Along with new corporate culture and management policies, management at Haier also recognized the need to upgrade the technology employed in their products. Not possessing the requisite skills in R&D Haier looked abroad for new advanced refrigeration technologies. In 1984 a partnership was formed between Haier and Liebherr of Germany, allowing Haier to acquire advanced ‘4-star' refrigeration technology. This strategic acquisition made Haier the only company in China to possess this advanced technology (Duysters 2009). This partnership with Liebherr of Germany marked the first case of Haier looking abroad for new technologies, opportunities and ways to improve the business. This eagerness to look abroad for new markets and technology would soon become one of the distinguishing characteristics of Haier as it developed as a firm.

連貫的國際化—— Internationalization in Context

Once Haier had established itself in the domestic market, the internationalization of operations became the primary method for the firm to continue to grow. Haier established domestic market share targets between 25-30 percent for home appliances, believing that competing for any further market share would decrease marginal benefits. By the end of 2000 Haier had already established dominate market shares in the refrigerator, freezers, air conditioners, and washing machines of 33, 42, 31 and 31 percent, respectively. (Liu 2002) Haier CEO Zhang Ruimin articulated the rationale behind the fruitless pursuit of additional domestic market share nothing that: “Margins are low here. If we don't go outside, we cannot survive (Economist 2004).” Additional motivation for internationalization for Haier was driven by the inerrant bulkiness of white goods products. If Haier was to continue to only manufacture in China and attempt to internationalize and service these international operations from its manufacturing base in China, it is likely that any advantages derived from comparatively cheap labour and other input costs would be largely lost due to the high costs of shipping. Thus for Haier to compete on the global level, regional production centres would be a necessity. (Liu 2002)
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The impetuous for Chinese firms to internationalize, and indeed for Haier to internationalize can be viewed through two broad overarching modalities: the “macroeconomic imperative” and the concept of “competitive flexibility”. Both are key in the understanding of what motivates Chinese firms like Haier to internationalize (Accenture 2007). The macroeconomic imperative is the inherent limitation placed on firm growth by an export oriented economy like that of China. Thus for a firm like Haier to realize its growth potential it must look abroad to break into new markets. In establishing operations abroad in new markets, Haier can escape the limitations of an economy constrained by trade growth, increase its international brand equity and improve profit margins. Competitive flexibility refers to the new challenges that face Chinese firms as they look to internationalize operations. As foreign firms seek to enter the Chinese market, the traditional competitive advantages of Chinese firms begin to disappear and firms like Haier are forced to develop new skills and advantages to survive. Chinese firms must develop or acquire talent in areas like marketing, branding, value-added goods and technological innovation. For many firms going abroad and acquiring these skills through mergers and acquisitions represent the quickest way to acquire the necessary skills and establish themselves in a given market or country (Accenture 2007).

國際化戰略—— Internationalization Strategy

Understanding this fact, CEO Zhang Ruimin propelled Haier into a rapid internationalization process that continues to the present. Haier's internationalization process can be generally described as one of entering developed countries and markets before expanding to developing markets and the focus on niche products before moving up into mainstream product segments. First entering the USA market in 1995 in the form of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) contracts (Haier 2), and the subsequent establishment of the Haier industrial park in South Carolina in 1999, has placed the USA at the forefront of Haier's internationalization strategy (Liu 2002). Indeed, Haier America has implemented the first case of their “Three-in-One” localization strategy: design centre in Los Angeles, Haier America corporate office in New York and industrial park in South Carolina. This structure displays Haier's strength of commitment to local operations and the American market (Haier 1).

Since Haier's initial entry into the American market via OEM and other import channels in the mid 1990s, the company has focused on establishing products one at a time, similar to what it did in the Chinese domestic market. However in the USA it has focused on niche products, such as mini-refrigerators and other segments with relatively weak competition that have been abandoned by traditional manufactures due to scant profit margins. The fact that Haier holds about 50% of the market for mini-refrigerators and wine coolers is a testament to their level of success in these segments (Bell 2008). Presently, most of Haier's offerings are available in the American market; however the majority of Haier's US revenue is still from the niche product offerings. Despite this success, there is little established competition in these segments and market growth prospects limited (Engardio 2006). These segments are not traditionally within the domain of the established manufacturers who operate primarily in the more competitive, higher margin standard white goods categories (Bell 2008). Meaning that if Haier wishes to move up the value chain into larger consumer appliances, they must find a way to produce and compete with the already established brands in the market (Biers 2001).

The establishment of the Haier industrial park in South Carolina in 1999 with the intention to produce products for the American market in America, marked Haier's main investment and commitment to the USA market thus far. The foreign direct investment in the American market allows Haier take advantage of the location advantages that are inherent with production in the USA. As Haier moves production of products for the American market away from China the firm loses many of the competitive advantages, such as a cheap labour force and overall lower cost of production, they had while operating in China. However Haier does not give up these advantages without reason.

As Haier seeks to move up the value chain into the sale of higher margin refrigerators and other products that are physically larger in size, the loss of cheap manufacturing will be partially offset by the lack of shipping costs to the North American market (Biers 2001). Additionally the location advantages associated with producing directly in the American market will allow Haier to be closer to the market so they can respond to consumer and market trends quicker and with greater certainty (Gao et al, 2003). The concept of being close to the market is very important to Haier's development in America.

Haier CEO Zhang Ruimin believes that because of the advantages gained from being close to the market, Haier will be able to win over consumers that would have otherwise purchased another brand. He notes, “to win over those consumers we have two approaches: speed and differentiation...” (Wu 2003). Both speed and differentiation are greatly enhanced with being located in the local market. Speed refers to the responsiveness to the consumer and the changing market trends, and differentiation signifies Haier commitment to developing new and innovative products via product R&D and market research (Wu 2003).

Haier shows its speed as a firm through an example of during 2001 the general manager of Haier USA, while attending a company conference suggested some design improvements for some freezers in the American market. The proposed changes were made in the afternoon, and the very next morning, a prototype freezer was presented to him (Liu 2002). Responsiveness and willingness to adopt new ideas can set Haier apart from other manufacturers. The quicker an idea can go from design room to showroom floor, the quicker Haier can capture market share and generate brand equity in a rapidly changing market environment.

This capability to respond quickly to customer needs also lends to the firm's ability to differentiate and offer a diverse product portfolio. If Haier can successfully enter the American market and distinguishes themselves as a company that is willing to act quickly to meet the consumer's needs they will have a leg up on the competition that are often slow moving when it comes to R&D and meeting customer needs (Hunt 2005). Haier developed a mini-refrigerator that features a foldout table specifically for use in university dormitory rooms after a product designer visited student accommodation where he found that students had made a makeshift table using a refrigerator and a piece of wood. (Duysters et al. 2009). Innovation like this sets Haier apart from traditional manufacturers who may not be willing to risk the costs associated with developing niche products for a limited market.
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However it is these very innovations that have given Haier market dominance in areas like mini- refrigerators. A more intangible reason for establishing production facilities in the USA is the stigma attached to products that come with a “Made in China” tag. As Haier seeks to gain traction in the American market, consumers are simultaneously becoming more and more aware and conscious of Chinese manufactured goods.

This concern is valid and becomes ever more so with every new story of tainted foods or dangerously defective products being shipped out of China (McLannahan 2009). When competing in the American market against already established American companies, Haier American senior vice president of sales, Bernie Tymkiw believes that competitive advantage can be obtained from the “Made in U.S.A.” sticker; “For consumers now, I think ‘Made in the U.S.A.' is a tie-breaker” (Biers 2001). In the case of brands from China trying to establish themselves in western markets, the “Made in U.S.A.” sticker can be viewed as part of the overall brand identity and can be associated with quality perception of the product.

In the American market, Haier seeks to compete not on price, but rather product quality, design and innovation (Biers 2001). In doing so Haier hopes to establish a brand in the American market renown for quality and function, a goal in the past that has previously eluded many Chinese firms. Now that Haier is successfully producing in the American market, the challenge remains of establishing itself further up the value chain, in the more mainstream and competitive home appliance segments where the overall quality of product and brand image are more important (Gao 2003).

In terms of product quality, Haier management recognized from the early stages that in order to set themselves apart from traditional Chinese manufacturing they must do so on product quality. Looking towards the high quality goods from Japanese manufacturers, Haier implemented quality control systems more demanding than the already stringent Japanese Industrial Standards. This strong commitment to quality was hitherto unimportant for many domestic Chinese firms; however for those that wish to internationalize targeting western markets, where quality of product is of paramount concern for the consumers, it is a necessary point of evolution. (Duysters 2009). Haier CEO Zhang Ruimin notes “Our strategy in the US market is not to manufacture cheap products, take them out of the factory, and push into the market. We intend to manufacture quality products that we can sell at a premium” (Wu 2003).

海爾美國機構 ——Haier America Structure

To achieve the above goals, Haier's operations in the USA have been established as a joint venture between Haier China and a group of North American investors. This contrasts with how many Asian firms enter the American market with wholly owned subsidiaries staffed by executives sent from the home country (Biers 2001). Apart from wholly owned subsidiaries, many Chinese firms enter foreign markets and set up their own distributors. These new distributors inherently lack market knowledge and contacts.

Haier has entered the American market employing only local distributors; these distributors have access to mature distribution networks and are more aware of the overall local market environment including emerging trends and other cultural issues. Additionally, the local distributors are at no linguistic disadvantage (Liu 2002).

Haier America operates with experienced American executives and maintains significant levels of autonomy from Haier China (Biers 2001). At Haier's American headquarters in New York, all management level employees were American with exception of the chief financial officer who has been appointed from Haier China (Liu 2002). The above factors allow Haier America to position itself not only geographically closer to the American consumer but also ‘psychically,' thus making it a more responsive and ‘in tune' with customer demands and market movements. Both are instrumental in Haier's efforts to gain market share and establish the Haier brand in the American market (Biers 2001).

兼并政策—— Acquisitions

Beyond the location advantages associated with the establishment of a production facility in the USA, Haier seeks to extend its ownership advantages through acquisition of brands and technology. In 2005 Haier attempted to gain market share and shore up brand recognition through the acquisition of well known and established American brand, Maytag (Guerrera 2008). As mentioned above, Chinese firms are traditionally lacking in skills such as marketing, branding and value added goods. The acquisition of Maytag, would have allowed Haier to bolster their business and brand in these weak areas. It would have significantly helped Haier bridge this skills gap and immediately raise its profile in the American market (Accenture 2007). If Haier would have been successful in the takeover, Haier would have taken control of an iconic brand well known to the American consumer. Haier would have also been able to capitalize on the acquisition of the mature distribution network and sales channels of Maytag (Gao 2003). Had the acquisition been successful the new company would have formed the third or second largest home appliance maker in the USA. Additionally the move would have immediately moved Haier closer to their new target market of more profitable mainstream appliances (Wu 2005).

Other than simply acquiring the American brand, the acquisition of Maytag would have allowed Haier to boost its own brand in tandem and transition the Haier brand away from the association with niche markets and low margin products (Gao 2003). Haier would have more bargaining power in the competitive American marketplace and would also be able to garner wider brand recognition via Maytag (McGregor 2005).

The attempted acquisition of Maytag or any other established brand by Haier would have been the quickest route for Haier to move up the value chain in the American market. Currently Haier is attempting to penetrate the American market by establishing its brand in niche products and then diversifying into other segments. The acquisition of a major brand would have immediately brought them to the fore in the American market, however it is to be seen if Haier has the requisite management talent in order to make any future foreign acquisition successful (Guerrera 2008).
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Haier has thus far struggled to move out of the niche low margin segment into more profitable higher margin products. As a relatively new entrant into the American market, Haier lacks any significant ownership advantages in the USA. Haier lags behind the established players in the American market in terms of R&D, brand recognition and access to distribution channels. To overcome these disadvantages,

Haier has sought acquire already established brands as can be seen in their attempt to takeover Maytag. (Economist 2004). However in this regard they have been unsuccessful and are left to a strategy of organic growth in the competitive American market.

Overall the success of Haier in the American market is mixed. While they have been able to enter the market and immediately capture markets in mini-refrigerators and specialty wine coolers, these segments have low profit margins and limited opportunities for growth. (Wu 2005). Since entering the USA Haier has focused on the above niche products, however if Haier wishes to establish their selves as a leading brand in the white goods industry the company must move aggressively to compete in the mainstream consumer white goods segments. The founding of the Haier industrial park to manufacture higher margin products such as larger refrigerator units that are cost prohibitive to ship from China is a good strategy to enter this segment. However, Haier has not been successful in establishing market share in this segment. Haier lacks established brands, necessary R&D expenditure and money for advertising (Wu 2005). Haier still relies on foreign companies for many key points of technology thus limiting them in their technological and overall business development (Liu 2002).

Additionally, the drive to specialize in and identify niche products may contribute negatively to the overall internationalization effort and brand. Haier maintains an international portfolio of 15,100 product varieties in 96 product lines, if Haier seeks to move up the value chain in the USA a more poignant strategy would be to focus on the core target market segment and attempt to compete head to head against the other major white goods firms in the American market (Duysters 2009).

Haier currently maintains 29 manufacturing plants, 8 R&D centres, 19 overseas trading companies around the world and employs more than 50,000 people. (Haier 3). However despite its global presence, in 2008 less than 5% of sales were generated outside of Haier's domestic region. If Haier wishes to achieve global recognition, a greater drive towards international sales is necessary (Euromonitor 2009).

結語—— Conclusion

After more than 10 years of operations in the American market, Haier's success and brand recognition is limited to niche products. Haier should look for more opportunities to acquire brands or companies in the wake of the failed Maytag bid. Currently as the USA is hit hardest by the currently economic recession, it may be an opportune time for Haier to acquire an undervalued brand or firm. Haier could obtain financing from Chinese banks that are being actively encouraged by the Chinese government to finance such investment abroad. Any acquisition would immediately raise the brand profile of Haier and put the goal of establishing itself as a global brand within reach.

Chinese businesses, like Haier, that wish to internationalize and expand operations to American markets face a unique set of challenges in entering the market. These challenges include little brand awareness, having to compete against established global firms and brands in a mature market and negative image of “Made in China”. Haier has taken steps to overcome these challenges; however they are still lack major recognition and success in the American white goods industry. Haier's initial entry to the American market via niche products leaves them with a lot of ground to make up. If Haier wishes to move up the value chain and compete in mainstream product segments they must aggressively seek to compete head to head with the established manufacturers, diversify away from niche products and foster a brand identity with commitment to quality.