美國西方文化－斯巴達與雅典方面留學生英語essay：Fashion and Culture Essay 范文

 

Essay：

Compare and contrast the Spartan and Athenian political systems.  What were the components (offices) in each? What were their respective strengths and weaknesses?  

 

以下是筆記：

The Governments of Sparta and Athens

 

Sparta:  “a unique form of government”

 

The Spartan system of government was considered to be a mixed constitution.  It was part monarchy, part oligarchy and part democracy. 

 

Two kings= served as the heads of the government = (monarchy element)

• Each one came from two prominent families 

o Succession was hereditary and usually passed to the oldest son 

• The kings exercised military, religious, and judicial powers 

o One king served as commander-in-chief of military

o One supervised domestic affairs

• They were not just figureheads but contributed to the military effectiveness of the country 

• Considered descendants of Zeus through his son Hercules so functioned as chief priests 

• Expected to serve as moral exemplifiers 

 

Gerousia [council of elders] = (oligarchy element) 

• Composed of 28 males all past age 60 served for life (60 was age when military service terminated) 

• All male citizens were eligible – but members usually wealthy, influential men 

• Election was highest honor attainable

• Candidates appeared in order determined by lot

• Winners were chosen by the acclamation in the assembly  

• Possessed crucial right of legislation – no bill brought before the assembly until it was approved by this council 

斯巴達和雅典的政府

 

斯巴達“的獨特形式的政府”

 

政府斯巴達系統被認為是一個混合憲法。這是君主制，寡頭政治部分和部分民主。

 

兩位國王擔任政府首腦= （君主制元）

•每一個來自兩個望族

Ø繼承世襲通常傳遞給長子

•在國王行使軍事，宗教和司法權力

o一個國王擔任軍事統帥

o一個監督內政

•他們不只是有名無實，但國家的軍事效益做出了貢獻

•審議通過他的兒子赫拉克勒斯宙斯的后裔，作為祭司長

•預計作為道德exemplifiers的，

 

Gerousia [長老會] =（寡頭元素）

•由男28例，所有過去的60歲擔任終身（ 60歲當兵役終止時）

•所有男性公民有資格 - 但通常是富裕的，有影響力的人

•選舉達到的最高榮譽

•考生出現的順序由抽簽決定

•得獎者分別選擇在裝配鼓掌

 

Assembly = (democracy element) 

• Included all male citizens over the age of 30

• Met once a month, outdoors at full moon

• Assembly did not debate (unlike the assembly in Athens)

• Listened to the proposals of the council and voted to accept of reject without discussion 

 

Ephors＝(oligarchy element) 

• Every year Spartans elected 5ephors by acclamation from candidates over the age of 30

• Supervised the kings

• Shared some executive powers of the kings 

• Represented the principle of  the law

• Judicial watchdogs (remember law not written down)

• Empowered to impeach kings

• Two always accompanied king on campaign

• Presided over the council

• Dealt with foreign embassies

• Exercised judicial power in civic matters involving perioikoi

• Total control of the education of the young 

 

Checks and Balances of the Spartan system (in theory)

• Council members elected by the Assembly

o All male citizens over age 60 eligible 

• Assembly = all male citizens over age 30 

o Right to vote 

• Kings are hereditary but policed by ephors

o Can be impeached

• Ephors

o Elected by the Assembly 

o Only in office for one year 

o Five = odd number 

 

Athens and Democracy 

 

Athenian democracy was fully developed ca. 480 BCE.  It contained some elements of their older system of government but with a new focus on the participation of all male citizens.  It also included new elements such as the Board of Ten Generals.  

 

Archons  

• Nine men chosen by lot from citizens who put themselves forward 

o Only held office once  

o Administrative duties

 

The Board of Ten Generals (Strategoi) 

• Elected by the Assembly 

• Reliable men, expert military abilities 

• Re-elected as many times as they liked 

• One general was never appointed commander-in-chief of a given expedition

o Led by consensus

 

Council of 500 

• Selected annually by lot, 50 from each of the ten Athenian - note #9#p#分頁標題#e#

o Handled details of the government 

• All male citizens over the age of 30 eligible

• http://www.400190.com/Essay_Writing/culture Service not compulsory

o Citizen could serve twice as a councilor in his lifetime

• Met everyday, except for festival days and certain other forbidden days

o Primary responsibilities = preparation of an agenda for the Assembly

o Supervision of the magistrates

 

Supervision of the Council of 500

• Each tribe in charge for 1/10 of the year 

• Order chosen by lot 

• Every day one was selected by lot to serve for 24 hours as chairman

 

Assemby

• Supreme decision-making body in Athens, which met in an open area on a hill called the Pnyx  

• Technically, every male citizen over the age of 18 could attend 

• Right to speak and vote on all matters of domestic and foreign policy

• Agenda posted four days before meeting 

• Sign was set up on day of meeting

• After the speeches, final decision = whole Assembly

o Voted with a show of hands 

• Assembly served as a law court hearing major cases

o Any decision made in a court of law could be appealed to the Assembly where a court of free citizens would hear the case

 

Ostracism (introduced c. 487 BCE) 

• Assembly could vote on expelling citizens from the state for a period of 10 years

o Voted using potsherds (ostra)

• #p#分頁標題#e#Guaranteed that individuals who were contemplating seizing power would be removed from the polis before they got too powerful

 

Checks and Balances (in theory)

• 10 tribes equally distributed in terms of wealth  

• Revolving service in council = political faction or individual could not gain too much power

• Ostracism